PROJECT: EFFECT OF GENDER ON STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING OF MATHEMATICS IN JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN UZOUWANI L.G.A. OF ENUGU STATE
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study:
The importance of mathematics in all
spheres of life is recognized worldwide, hence the enormity at improving the
achievement of teaching and learning as well as research and development in
mathematics (Ojo and Agwagah, 2010). The deteriorating quality of students’
achievement on teaching and learning of mathematics at the secondary schools in
Nigeria has been the subject of considerable concern over the past decades.
Evidence bounds regarding the poor quality of students’ achievement on teaching
and learning mathematics. Gagne in
Adetula (2009: 129) described teaching as any activity on the part of one
person intended to facilitate learning on the part of another. Learning is a
relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience (Morgan, 2007).
Suana and Diaro (2008) further stated that teaching and learning are different
functions. The process is carried out by one person while the learning are to
work effectively, therer must be some connection or bridge between the teacher
and learner. So to have quality teaching and learning of mathematics, teachers
must be effective. Effective is to achieve the expected desired result when
applied in practice while effectiveness is defined as achievement of the
objectives sought to produce desired effect (Koont et al in Arukwe, 2006:132).
It
has been reiterated that effect is what teachers think, what teachers behave
and what teachers do at the classroom that ultimately shape the kind of
learning that people get. It is what makes teachers effective.
Gender
can be regarded as a factor influencing students’ achievement on teaching and
learning of mathematics. Gender refers to psychological and social phenomenon
associated with being feminine or masculine. The word “gender” was first used
by Ann Oakley and associate in the 1970s to describe the characteristics of a
man and woman which are socially determined in contrast to those which are
biologically determined (UNESCO, 1998). Hence, gender is an important factor in
the students’ achievement on effective teaching and learning of mathematics in
particular. The teaching-learning process of mathematics varies with the sex.
Sex difference in school achievement has also been given some biological
interpretation. Some authors believe that males perform better than females in
mathematics due to self-esteem of the students and their academic achievement.
For
a very long time, there seems to have a wide effect between the male and female
achievement on teaching and learning of mathematics in secondary schools
especially in Uzo-Uwani local government area of Enugu state.
More
so, in Enugu state like in all other states of Nigeria, there is a great gap in
achievement of students and achievement of teachers in mathematics which is
attributed to the difference Ezeh, (2007). For instance, there has been the
notion that male students achieve more than female students in mathematics
while male teachers teach better than female teachers. And this leads to the
notion that there is effect of gender on students’ achievement in the teaching
and learning of mathematics. Iwuji (2002) was of the view that the effect of
gender in some of these promotional subjects like mathematics was as a result
of “sex role expectations”. From the research conducted on common errors committed
by junior secondary school ( JSS 3) students in solving problems involving
inequality in Mathematics, the result indicated that the male students
committed fewer errors than their female counterparts.
In
the late 1990’s, scientists argued that women were less intelligent than men,
as proof they pointed to differences in the size of brain in men and women
(Fansto Sterling, 2002). Consequently, men are more likely to use speech to
exhibit their knowledge skills or ability. In public settings, men feel
challenged to demonstrate intelligence and expertise. The issue of gender
effects on students’ achievement in Mathematics has formed an important focus
on research for some years now. This was clearly detected by Alio and
Habor-Peters (2000). During their experimentation with polya’s problem solving
techniques, they discovered that notwithstanding, the achievement of male and
female students are in favour of males. Also, a study conducted by Ezeugo and
Agwagah (2000) revealed that male gender performed significantly better than
their female counterparts in algebra both in the pretest and posttest of
algebra achievement test using concept mapping method irrespective of the fact
that the method induced higher achievement of the experimental group. The
effect of gender on the achievement of male and female students in Mathematics
has been attributed to environmental and psychological factors which included
method and media of instructions. This observation was also confirmed by a
research study conducted by Iwuji (1992). The study was aimed at discovering
some cultural and environmental factors which will influence the students’
achievement on teaching and learning of Mathematics. Aiken (2009) noted that
effects of gender on Mathematics abilities are present even at the kindergarten
level.
All
the societies including media, parents and teachers participate in this
indoctrinated belief and notion that males dominate their female counterparts
in teaching and learning of Mathematics.
Analysis
of statistics on access to education and training showed up extensive and wide
gender disparity in the vital areas of Science and Technology. Findings from
current research in curriculum indicated that school curriculum and learning
activities were carried with its large dose of gender bias (Harding, 2005). The
Science and Mathematics curricular were most frequently cited. Gender effect
exists in career choice. We observe that boys tend to choose career that can
take them to top magistrate or prestigious position such as law, engineering,
medicine to mention but a few, whereas the girls go for careers in caring and
service section. Examples are nursing, teaching, typing etc. In the family,
females are generally expected to assume more nurturing, conservative and home
based roles, while males are assigned the roles of bread-winner, disciplinarian
and protection of household. One often hears commands such as “she does not
behave like a woman” or “he is too feminine”. Such commands suggest that there
are sets of behavior which societies associate with either males or females.
This is known in psychology as sex-typing of behavior. This could also
influence the students’ achievement in teaching and learning of Mathematics in
secondary schools specifically in Uzouwani Local Government Area of Enugu
State. The probable explanation for this sort of sex difference in cognitive
development may be that the traditional sex role expectations for females have
not given them the opportunity to exercise their mental capacities in certain
teaching and learning. Since women are expected traditionally to stay at home
and look after babies and to eschew ambitions and adventurous tendencies as
house wives. This could result in women roles as their mental development to
those expected roles. Moreover, this may affect the attitude of teachers and
students in secondary schools in teaching and learning of Mathematics.
Statement of problem
The
importance of Science specifically Mathematics in overall well being of populace
cannot be over emphasized. Science and Mathematics hold the key to the
development of every nation. In view of the importance of Mathematics, students
are expected to achieve better in Mathematics. However, the students’
achievement in teaching and learning of Mathematics in Uzouwani Local
Government Area of Enugu State have being at a low ebb. This state of art has
been attributed to many factors including gender of the teachers of Mathematics
in the junior secondary school. Hence, the statement of problem of this study
posed in form of question is “does the teacher’s gender affects the students’
achievement in teaching and learning of Mathematics in junior secondary schools
in Uzouwani Local Government Area?
Purpose of the Study
The
main purpose of the study is to identify the effect of gender on students’
achievement in teaching and learning of Mathematics in junior secondary
schools. Specifically, the study sought to identify:
The proportion of male and female
Mathematics teachers teaching Junior Secondary School (JSS 3) students.
The proportion of male and female
JSS 3 students studying Mathematics in the Junior Secondary School.
The difference in the mean
achievement score of JSS 3 students taught by male and female Mathematics
teachers.
The difference in the mean attitude
rating of students taught by male and female Mathematics teachers towards
learning of Mathematics.
The difference in the mean attitude
rating of male and female Mathematics teachers towards teaching of Mathematics.
Significance of the Study
In
view of the significant position of secondary school education, teachers and
students are focused on. The findings of the study would be of help to teachers,
school administrators, policy makers etc.
The findings would help the
Mathematics teachers to identify the means of weaknesses and strengths of
students in Mathematics and even theirs.
The findings of the study would
also be of help to school administrators mostly in assigning instructional roles
to teachers of Mathematics vis-à-vis their sex.
The policy makers would benefit
from the findings of the study and use it in helping the government in
recruiting Mathematics teachers and in development of Mathematics curriculum
being mindful of gender effect if any. Then findings of the study would also
help the policy makers in identifying an efficient style of designing workshops
for the Mathematics teachers; and training of the teachers in developing the
right attitude towards teaching of the all important subject.
Finally, the findings would also
add to the body of knowledge in Education generally and specifically in
Mathematics education.
Scope of the Study
The
study is designed to investigate the effects of gender on students’ achievement
in teaching and learning of Mathematics in junior secondary schools. The study
covered all the twelve public secondary schools which have attained the level
of enrolling into the Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE).
Research Questions
The
following research questions guided the study.
What is the proportion of male and
female Mathematics teachers teaching Junior Secondary School (JSS 3) students?
What is the proportion of male and
female JSS 3 students studying Mathematics in the Junior Secondary School?
What is the mean achievement score
of JSS 3 students taught by male and female Mathematics teachers?
What is the mean attitude rating of
students taught by male and female Mathematics teachers towards learning of
Mathematics?
What is the mean attitude rating of
male and female Mathematics teachers towards teaching of Mathematics?
Research Hypotheses
The
following hypotheses are postulated to guide the study.
HO1. There is no
statistically significant difference in the mean achievement scores of JS 3
students taught by male and female Mathematics teacher.
HO2. There is no
statistically significant difference in the mean attitude rating of students
taught by male and female Mathematics teachers towards learning of Mathematics.
HO3. There is no statistically significant
difference in the mean attitude rating of male and female Mathematics teachers
towards teaching of Mathematics.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review was presented
under the following sub-headings; the theoretical/conceptual frame work,
theoretical studies, review of related studies and summary of literature
review.
Conceptual framework
Concept of Mathematics
Concept of Mathematics Education
Concept of gender
Concept of Academic Achievement
Concept of teaching
Concept of learning
Theoretical framework
Nancy Chodorow’s psychoanalytic
feminist theory (1978)
Atkinson Achievement Theory (1957)
Theoretical Studies
Importance of Mathematics
Academic achievement of students
Factors affecting students’
achievement
Review of related empirical studies
Summary
Conceptual frame work
Concept of Mathematics
Mathematics
had been variously defined by different researchers and Mathematicians in
various ways as applicable to their needs. Ogunmoyela in Kolawole and Oluwatayo
(2005:52) defined Mathematics as the bedrock of all scientific and
technological breakthrough and advancement. He further stated that Mathematics is
primarily concerned with the methods of discovering certain truths and the
nature of the truths so discovered. This implies that the society is much
comfortable and related when emphasis is placed on applications of Mathematical
concepts.
Mathematics is a tool for
scientific and technological development. No nation can develop scientifically
and technologically without proper foundation in school Mathematics (Okafor, 2005).
Okafor observed that without mathematics, there is no science, without science,
there is no modern technology, without modern technology, there is no modern
society.
Akinbuwa in Kankia (2008:99) stated
that “Mathematics has been the queen and master servant of sciences and it is
natural for Mathematics to assume this role”, without Mathematics, one could
not penetrate the depths of his world (Krutetskii, 1976). No wonder, Kline,
(1980) opined that it is not a surprise to discover that most accomplishments
of human being are found in his effort to utilize his Mathematical reasoning.
Agreeing with him, Aminu (1995) pointed out that Mathematics is not only the
language of science, but also essential nutrient for thought, logical reasoning
and for sequential patterns.
Mathematics has been regarded as
the bedrock of scientific and technologically development. The role of
Mathematics in this regard has been greatly emphasized in the literature.
According to Iyobhebhe (2002:69), “science and technology are important
components of the wall dividing poverty and prosperity. Science and technology
are so intimately linked; either of the two could be the result or the other.
Science and technology are therefore, indispensable components of the
development change, and Mathematics is the fundamental to both”.
Obodo (2000) defined Mathematics as
a language that uses carefully defined terms and concise symbolic representations
which adds precision to communication. He noted that the languages of
Mathematics are systems of sound, words and patterns which are frequently used
in communicating Mathematical ideas by Mathematicians and other professionals.
Harbor-peters (2000) defined Mathematics as a culture as well as an art. As a
culture, Mathematics affords man the opportunity to know and access things and
subjects within his immediate and remote environment. As an art, the beauty of
Mathematics is exhibited in the process where a chaos of isolated facts is
transformed into logical order. Mathematics is the language of science, the
foundation of all exact knowledge of natural phenomena, a source of endless
fascination in its own right. He further stated that Mathematics is needed as a
tool for solving problems arising from the developing, technology, science,
organization and economics etc.
Based on the different definitions
and views of various scholars, it can be said that Mathematics is dynamic,
field of knowledge which has much to offer in science, technology, arts,
everyday living as well as entrepreneurship development.
Concept of Mathematics Education
The
importance of Mathematics in all spheres of life is recognized worldwide;
hence, the enormity at improving the teaching and learning as well as research
and development in Mathematics (Ojo and Agwagah, 2010). The deteriorating
quality of teaching and learning of Mathematics at the secondary schools in
Nigeria has been the subject of considerable concern over the past decades.
Mathematics
Education is to a nation what protein is to a young human organism. As a vital
tool for the understanding and application of science and technology, the
discipline plays a vital role of a precursor and harbinger to the much needed
technological and of course national development, which has become an
imperative in the developing nations of the world. The choice of this topic is
predicted on the current world trend and research emphasis on gender issues
following the millennium declaration of September, 2010 (United Nations, 2010)
which has its goal as; the promotion of gender equity, the empowerment of women
and the elimination of gender inequality in basic and secondary education by
2010 and at all levels by 2020. In realization of the significant role of
Mathematics to nation building, the government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria
made the subject compulsory at the basic and secondary levels. This was aimed
at ensuring the inculcation of Mathematics literacy and the associated
equipment with logical and abstract thinking needed for living, problem solving
and education furtherance. For full realization of these laudable objectives of
Mathematics Education, subject mastering and demonstrated achievement should be
evenly distributed across gender. Unfortunately, gender inequality in education
has remained a perennial problem of global scope (Bordo, 2001; UNESCO, 2009;
Reid, 2010).
Mathematics
is a science subject and some gender based science researchers have reported
that what both the feminist empiricists and liberal feminist critics seem to
agree that females in principle will produce exactly the same scientific
knowledge as males provided that sufficient rigour is undertaken in scientific
inquiry (Howes, 2006; Barton, 2011; Sinnes, 2013). They also believe that
initiatives that build on the assumption that females and males are equal in
their approach to science, and that inequality in science and science education
is caused by political, educational and social factors external to science
would be expected to focus on removing these external obstacles. There is need
to give boys and girls exactly the same opportunities and challenges.
Concept of Gender
Gender
can be regarded as a factor influencing the students’ achievement in teaching
and learning of Mathematics. Gender refers to psychological and social
phenomenon associated with being feminine or masculine. The word “gender” was
first used by Ann Oakley and associate in the 1970’s to describe those
characteristics of a man and woman which are socially determined in contrast to
those which are biologically determined (UNESCO, 1998). Hence, gender is an
important factor on the students’ achievement in teaching and learning of
Mathematics in particular. The teaching learning process of Mathematics varies
with sex. Sex difference in school achievement has also been given some biological
interpretation. Some authors believe that males perform better than females in
Mathematics due to self-esteem of the students and their academic achievement.
Gender
as defined by Bassow (2011) is a psychological term describing behavior and
attributes expected of individual on the basis of being born either a male or
female. Keller (2011) writing on the embracive nature of gender observed that
it is a cultural construct developed by the society to distinguish the roles,
behaviours, mental and emotional characteristics between male and female.
According to Stoller (1998), gender has psychological or cultural rather than
biological connotations. If the proper terms for sex are “male” and “female”,
the corresponding terms for gender are “masculine” and “feminine”. These
letters may be quite independent of (biological) sex. Sex is a physical
distinction; gender is a social and cultural one. Although masculine and
feminine gender are usually associated with male and female sex, this is not an
absolute correlation we are born male or female sex but we learn concept of
muscularity and feminism just as we learn other cultural definition. In other
words, sex unlike gender is immutable and not subject to a local material
culture. It has taken psychologists a long time to realize the importance of
drawing a distinction between sex and gender, and even longer to pay sufficient
attention to the significance of drawing this distinction. Many psychologists
such as Mead and Kemper in their various works now prefer to reserve the word
“sex” to describe specific biological mechanism or structures and to routinely
use the term “gender” when they are discussing social and psychological aspects
that are characteristics of men and women or which are assumed to be the terms
‘gender stereotype’, ‘gender-risks’ and ‘gender identities’ which imply that
these subject to social and cultural influences are only minimal, if at all
influenced by sexual characteristics such as hormones, chromosomes and sex
organs.
The
word gender has generated controversy to its real meaning. Every society exists
and thrives on expectations, how these expectations are put into practice
varies from one society to another. Gender according to the United Nation
definition as adopted by the Fourth World Conference on Women (FWCW), 2006) in
Beijing China is “man and woman” and this is the definition the definition the
researchers intend to use.
Concept of Academic Achievement
Achievement has been variously
described by various authors most often to reflect their conceptual views about
this term. For instance Krumboltz (2010) defined achievement as “an observable
human accomplishment”. Behaviour is what brings about achievement; so,
achievement as defined in this context is the outcome of behaviour. We can observe
an individual close a door; the outcome becomes the fact that the door is
closed (achievement). We can observe an individual solving science problem; the
achievement is the solution the individual could make out of the problem. The
fundamental reason why human achievement is related to education is that it
must be used to define what happens, or what is supposed to happen in the
educational process. Human achievement is the fundamental class of data one
must have in order to infer learning. It is therefore of basic importance to
education. The observable human achievement of learning is used as objectives
of education, if one could specify all the achievements he expected of a
purpose. It would tell us what students is able to do at the end of the primary
school and it would also tell us what he is able to do before he goes to
primary to primary school. The first could be used to compare with what he
could do when he entered the primary school and thus provide an idea of how
much learning has occurred; the second could provide a basic line or the
changes in behaviour we hope will occur during his school attendance. It is
indeed difficult to see how one can assess learning without such “before and
after” observations for human achievement.
Concept of Teaching
To
teach means to give instruction, to train, to give to another knowledge or
skill, which one has (oneself). A teacher derived from the above definition is
someone who gives instructions, trains, gives knowledge or skills one possesses
to another. Teaching, however, could be variously perceived. Gagne in Adetula
(1993:29) in Ezeh (2007:15) described teaching as any activity on the part of
another. Also, Smith in some source conceived teaching as a “succession of acts
by an individual whose purpose is either to show other persons how to do
something or to inform them that something is the cause”. Analyzing the above
definition, Adetula (1993:123) in Ezeh (2007:15) observed that learning will
result from teaching and students’ achievement is the key word to justify this,
hence, the perception of teaching here is “best understood through students’
achievement”.
Teaching is a set of events,
outside the learners which are designed to support internal process of
learning. Teaching (Instruction) is outside the learner. Learning is internal
to learners. You cannot motivate others if you are not self-motivated. Motives
are not seen, but, Behaviors are seen. Is learning a motive or behavior?
Learning is both a motive and behavior but only behavior is seen, learning is
internal, performance is external (Sequeira, 2002).
Role of the Teacher:
Generally, the roles of teacher can
be categorized into:
Traditional Role - Teacher Centered
Modern Role - Facilitator (Student
Centered)
There has been a change from the
Traditional role to the Modern role in the present context. The learning
increases when the teacher builds on the previous experience of the student.
However, individual’s learning differs and each individual learns at his or her
own pace. Identifying the slow learners and individual attention of the teacher
may be required. Thus, effective learning is to a great extent based on
experiences. Direct experiences are student centered and participation in
problem solving. While in indirect experience, the contents are carefully
designed and organized by teacher (Sequeira, 2002).
Traditional versus Modern role
Traditionally the role of the
teacher has been as a purveyor of information: the teacher was the fount of all
knowledge. This suggests a picture of students sitting in rows in front of the
teacher who is talking and passing information to students with the aid of a blackboard,
while the students either listen passively or, if the teacher is lucky, take
their own notes.
This, of course, is not true
anymore. The modern teacher is a facilitator: a person who assists students to
learn for themselves. Instead of having students sitting in rows, they are
likely to be in groups, all doing something different; some doing practical
tasks, some writing, some not even in the room but in another part of the
building using specialist equipment or looking up something in the library. All
of the students might well be at different stages in their learning and in
consequence, the learning is individualized to suit individual requirements and
abilities.
This change from the traditional
model is the result of a number of factors. First, it is recognized that
adults, unlike small children, have a wealth of experience and are able to plan
their learning quite efficiently. Second, not all individuals learn in the same
manner, so that if a teacher talks to students some might benefit, but others
might not. Third, everyone learns at their own pace and not, of necessity, at
the pace set by the teacher. Hence, the individualizing of learning has defined
advantages (Sequeira, 2002).
Research into the ways that people
learn has not provided teachers with any specific answers. If it had, all
teachers would be using the same techniques. However, researchers have
identified that learning is generally more effective if it is based on experiences;
either direct experiences or experiences that have been read about. Of the two
types of experiences, the former is more likely to be effective than the
latter. Thus concepts that are able to be practiced or seen are more likely to
be learning. To apply this in a practical situation in post-16 education and
training, learning is more likely to be effective when it is related to, and
conducted in, the knowledge of a student’s (work) experience.
We need, at this stage, to consider
how we as teachers might best provide the experiences so as to make the
learning as easy and quick as possible. We might consider two possible approaches
to the design of a teaching programme.
(i) A programme where the content
is carefully derived from an analysis of the student’s personal, social and/or
vocational needs and which is implemented by you in such a controlled and
organized manner that the student is almost certain to learn, and is aware when
the learning has taken place. By this method, motivation is generated by
immediate success and the avoidance of failure.
Unfortunately this rarely takes
place because it has a fundamental drawback. Apart from the requirement for the
students to place themselves in the hands of the teacher and thus tend to
develop a relationship of dependency, it confirms to them that learning is a process
which is organized by someone who knows better. It does not help students to learn
on their own.
(ii) The other approach starts from
the experience of the student, experience that has taken place as part of life
or which has been organized as part of the programme.
It then depends upon the student
identifying and accepting a need to learn. Such as approach has been described
as ‘problem solving’, ‘student-centered learning’, ‘participative learning’,
and so on.
The problem with this approach is
to ensure that important areas of learning are not omitted and that the ‘right’
balance is struck between these areas, and that each area is learned as
effectively as possible.
Teaching methods which allow this
second approach to be implemented include:
project work derived from students’
current experiences;
discussions which allow students to
recognize and consolidate what the experience has taught them, and also lead
them to identify what else they need to learn and practice;
the learning of specific
problem-solving techniques which can be applied to a range of situations;
Activities designed to
provide opportunities for specific learning outcomes (Sequeira, 2002).
Such a list of teaching approaches
identifies a second problem associated with the approach; that of (over)
concentrating upon the activities – the practical work which tends to be more
enjoyable, and neglecting to recognize the possible learning that can accrue
from such activities.
Concept of Learning
Learning is the process whereby an
organism changes its behavior as a result of experience. The idea that learning
is a process means that learning takes time. Therefore, learning is relatively
a permanent change in behaviour due to experience. However, it is a process
that must be assessed indirectly. We can only assume that learning has occurred
by observing achievement which is susceptible to such factors as fatigue and
lack of effect. Morgan (1956), a psychologist in Ezeh (2007) defined learning
as any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of
practice or experience. This definition has three important elements: Learning is
change in behaviour for better or for worse It is change that takes place
through practices or experience. Change due to growth or maturation are not
learning. Before it can be called learning, the change must be relatively
permanent. It must last for a fairly long time.
Learning
is about a change: the change brought about by developing a new skill, understanding
a scientific law, changing an attitude. The change is not merely incidental or
natural in the way that our appearance changes as we get older. Learning is a relatively
permanent change, usually brought about intentionally.
Other learning can take place
without planning, for example by experience. Generally with all learning there
is an element within us of wishing to remember and understand why something
happens and to do it better next time.
Main Learning Theories
The
Behaviorists - (behaviorism: Stimulus – Response)
The Neo-Behaviorists (Neo-behaviorism: Human Mind)
The
Gestaltists (Insight)
The Cognitivists (Cognitive development: Learning to think)
The
Humanists (Active nature of Learner) (Ngwoke, 2010).
Learning
Models:
We are
often faced with questions such as: Why use models? How to teach? How
Student
Learn? Answer comes from experience of many people over many years in form of
Models. Such Models can be used by any teacher depending on context. Example: Pedagogical
Vs Andragogical Models. Pedagogical approach teacher dominated learning situation
- Students rather passive. Andragogical approach - emphasis on what the learner
is doing - how adults learn.
Adult Expectations (Learning Needs):
Some of
the common adult expectations are:
Adults
expect to be taught.
Adult
students expect to have to work hard.
Adult
student expectation is that the work is related to the vocation.
Adult
student’s expectation is that they expect to be treated as adults.
Each of
these four expectations although stated in general terms needs to be
interpreted as individual needs. Students may vary in age, sex, background,
etc. If students treated as individuals - find out more about them (inside -
outside classroom), the greater likelihood to relate their learning to their
needs and improve learning potential. Kindness, empathy and sincerity always
reap rich dividends with adult learner (Ngwoke, 2010).
Theoretical framework
This study is hinged on Psychoanalytic feminist theory. The theory has
often been critical of naturalistic explanations of sex and sexuality that
assume that the meaning of women's social existence can be derived from some
fact of their physiology. Nancy Chodorow (1978) is the originator of the
psychoanalytic feminist theory. In distinguishing sex from gender, the feminist
theorist have disputed causal explanations that assume that sex dictates or
necessitates certain social meanings for women's experience. Significantly, it
is this claim that Simone de Beauvoir cites in The Second Sex when she sets the
stage for her claim that "woman," and by extension, any gender, is an
historical situation rather than a natural fact.
When Beauvoir claims that 'woman' is a historical idea and not a natural
fact, she clearly underscores the distinction between sex, as biological fact,
and gender, as the cultural interpretation or significance of that fact. To be
female is, according to that distinction, a fact which has no meaning, but to
be a woman is to have become a woman, to compel the body to conform to an
historical idea of 'woman,' to induce the body to become a cultural sign, to
materialize oneself in obedience to a historically delimited possibility, and
to do this as a sustained and repeated corporeal project. The notion of a
'project', however, suggests the originating force of a radical will, and
because gender is a project which has cultural survival as its end, the term
'strategy' better suggests the situation of duress under which gender
performance always and variously occurs. Hence, as a strategy of survival,
gender is a performance with clearly punitive consequences. Discrete genders
are part of what 'humanizes' individuals within contemporary culture; indeed,
those who fail to do their gender right are regularly punished. Because there
is neither an 'essence' that gender ex-presses or externalizes nor an objective
ideal to which gender aspires; because gender is not a fact, the various acts
of gender creates the idea of gender, and without those acts, there would be no
gender at all. Gender is, thus, a construction that regularly conceals its
genesis. The tacit collective agreement to perform, produces, and sustain
discrete and polar genders as cultural fictions is obscured by the credibility
of its own production. The authors of gender become entranced by their own
fictions whereby the construction compels one's belief in its necessity and
naturalness.
Atkinson Achievement Theory
Achievement motivation theorist
(Atkinson, 1957) attempt to explain people’s choice of achievement tasks,
persistence on those tasks, vigor in carrying them out, and performance on them
(Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Pintrich & Schunk, 1996). As
discussed by Murphy and Alexander (this issue), there are a variety of
constructs posited by motivation theorists to explain how motivation influences
choice, persistence, and achievement. One long-standing perspective on
motivation is expectancy–value theory. Theorists in this tradition argue that
individuals’ choice, persistence, and achievement can be explained by their
beliefs about how well they will do on the activity and the extent to which
they value the activity (Atkinson, 1957; Eccles et al., 1983; Wigfield, 1994;
Wigfield & Eccles, 1992). These social cognitive variables, in turn, are
influenced by individuals’ perceptions of their own previous experiences and a
variety of socialization influences.
Theoretical Studies
Importance of Mathematics
The
importance of Mathematics among others may include: social importance,
industrial importance and technological importance (Ezekute & Ihezue,
2006).
Social Importance: The definition
and other basic aspect of Mathematics inform us that everybody in whatever
field of study or occupation needs Mathematics. The woman as the manager of home
needs Mathematics for the economics of the home management, trader needs it to
buy and sell, the welder, the shoe maker, carpenter, mason, farmer, engineer,
doctor etc.; all need to be rooted at least in elementary Mathematics. There is
a growing recognition among the public and employers of the expanding need for
mathematical skills and expertise and of the importance of general mathematical
literacy to the consumer and citizens (Osibodu, 1988; Ezekute & Ihezue,
2006).
This is why Mathematics forms a core
subject both in primary and secondary schools in most part of the world
including Nigeria. The real justification in teaching Mathematics in our
schools is that it is a useful subject and in particular, that it helps in
solving many kinds of problems (Begle, 1979 in Ezekute & Ihezue, 2006).
Industrial Importance: There are
four departments where the study of Mathematics can fit a Mathematician in an
industry: These include economics and statistical department, planning
department, computer department and accounting and managerial finance
department (Enuke, 1981 in Ezekute & Ihezue, 2006).
In economics and statistical
department, Mathematics is required in this department because the industry has
the need to collect data on economic situation and make projections as to
future trends and the implication of these to the future plan of the business.
In planning department, Mathematics
of operations research is required. Linear programming is required to optimize
profit or services, the network analysis is required so as to find the shortest
route to distribute product or to collect raw materials.
Computer department as an organization gets
larger and more complex, problems of stock controls, wages bills, storage of
information, management of cash and credit sales, etc, the need for computer to
process these data, store and retrieve information to save time becomes
necessary.
In accounting and managerial
finance department, mathematicians are good at numbers and so will have little
problem with elementary accounting. In managerial finance, knowledge of
advanced mathematics is very necessary. The manger needs mathematics of
break-even analysis, time series analysis, simple regression and multiple regressions
including correlation analysis, all necessary for casting financial returns.
Technological importance: Mathematics
is very important in both technological training and technological practice.
The basic subject, which contribute immensely to technology are Physics,
Chemistry and Technical Drawing, but Mathematics is both servant and queen to
each of them.
Engineering courses which form the
skeletal framework for technology, uses a lot of Mathematics. Professionals in
the construction industry that is, the surveyors, engineers, technologists,
quantity surveyors, architect, are adequately prepared mathematically to enable
each practice their profession.
In designing and construction of
engine parts, simple geometrical shapes are employed. Other areas in which
Mathematics is employed in technology is in testing the performance of machine,
forecasting output of machines, engineering designs, manufacturing,
maintenance, research and development, renovation, statistical data collection
and analysis and final application of computers to analyze and store data to
save time and effort (Ezekute & Ihezue, 2006).
Academic Achievement of students
Igwe
(2011) stated that the academic achievement of students in schools especially
in science subjects such as Mathematics which is one of the promotional
subjects is poor. This might be as a result of other factors surrounding the
subject and not necessarily because of gender of the students. Some of these
factors might be individual differences, family background, socio-economic
status, school environment, the quality of teachers and general value system of
the society as well as the school curriculum. All these factors generally
affect all other subjects.
Some
of these factors lack precise definition and are avoidable in depth study.
Thus, Himmel-Weit (2006) observed that although the school is an active
socialization agency, only the home is studied in very considerable depth. A
number of researches suggested positive correlation between teacher’s
qualification and students’ achievement in school. According to Brome Beck
(2011), the quality of teachers shows a stronger relationship with students’
achievement than either facilities or curricula. Griffiths (2008) also
suggested that the potential of an education system was related to the ability
of its teachers. Similarly, Scannel (2006) agreed that all teachers need
breadth and depth in the subject they teach including an understanding of how
new knowledge is generated in their fields and this calls for high
qualification of teachers. From these findings, it is clear that there is a strong
positive relationship between teachers’ qualification and students’
achievement; and the reservations about the relationship with suggestions that
other factors may be more important. Clifford (2008) observed that the overall
intelligent quotients (IQs) of males and females at any age are virtually the
same. In part, this is because makers of intelligence test have deliberately
omitted items on which there are sex differences. This is partly due to the
average out of differences on sub-tests of the intelligence scales. This means
that he still has the belief that during childhood, there are still few
impressive sex differences on intellectual tasks although girls do show an
early and increasing superiority in verbal behaviour. Differences become more noticeable
about the time of adolescence.
Girls and women generally do better
on task that calls for verbal expression and fluency; the perception of details
quickly and accurately; rapid and accurate body movements. Boys and men surpass
females on spatial, numerical and many mechanical tasks. Some but not all of
these differences correspond to our common impressions of what each sex does
best. According to studies by Witkin (1998) in Morgan Clifford (2008), sex
difference in intellectual functioning shows on problems like verbal tasks or
analogy problems. Females generally perform better than males especially in
adolescence and beyond. On spatial tasks like embedded figure problems, males
generally perform better than females especially from adolescence. For a long
time now, there has been unprecedented public interest in sex roles development
of children and appropriate social, economic and political roles of men and
women in our society. There has been however questions about values, fairness
or disability of various practices; which are usually said to be felt outside
the scientific province of psychology. Description of psychological differences
between males and females and investigations of some sources of these
differences are, however said to be with the current scope of personality
research (Morgan, 2008).
We all have stereotype about
male-female differences. As will all other stereotype, we tend to remember and
emphasize instances which confirm expectations. When sociologists have taken careful
look at all available evidence, some of these common expectations have been
confirmed, while others have not. One of the most extensive reviews of
psychological literature has been published by Maccoby and Jacki (2001). Their
major findings were stated as follows:
Girls excel in verbal ability: Girls
verbal abilities apparently mature somehow earlier, but differences are minimal
from pre-school to adolescence. Beginning about of eleven (11), girls show
increasingly advantage in both respective and expressive language in both
simpler and complex verbal skills.
Boys excel in visual-spatial
ability: This superiority appears inconsistently in adolescence and adulthood,
not earlier research showed an average level of about six (6) points on an IQ
like measures.
Boys excel in mathematical ability:
This difference also appears early in adolescence but as more variable, depend
on the population and the type of problem. Thus, girls are better at role
learning and repetitive tasks while boys are better at tasks that require
higher level cognitive processing and more analytical. The findings showed that
girls are more affected by heredity, but boys by environment; girls lack
achievement motivation; girls are more
auditory while boys are more visual.
Therefore, one could say that some
expected psychological sex differences are fairly reliable, many more either
questionable or non-existent.
Factors affecting academic
achievement of students
A number of studies have been carried out to
identify and analyze the numerous factors that affect academic performance in
various centres of learning. Their findings identify students’ effort, previous
schooling (Siegfried & Fels, 1979; Anderson & Benjamin, 1994), parents’
education, family income (Devadoss & Foltz, 1996), self motivation, age of
student, learning preferences (Aripin, Mahmood, Rohaizad, Yeop, & Anuar,
2008), class attendance (Romer, 2003), and entry qualifications as factors that
have a significant effect on the students’ academic achievement in various
settings. The utility of these studies lies in the need to undertake corrective
measures that improve the academic achievement of students, especially in
public funded institutions. The throughput of public-funded institutions is
under scrutiny especially because of the current global economic downturn which
demands that governments improve efficiency in financial resource allocation
and utilization.
Although there has been considerable debate
about the determinants of academic achievement among educators, policymakers,
academics, and other stakeholders, it is generally agreed that the impact of
these determinants vary (in terms of extent and direction) with context, for
example, culture, institution, course of study etc.
Since not all factors are relevant for a
particular context, it is imperative that formal studies be carried out to
identify the context-specific determinants for sound decision making. This
literature review provides a brief examination of some of the factors that
influence academic achievement. The choice of factors reviewed here was based
on their importance to the current study.
Students’
learning preferences
A good match between students’ learning
preferences and instructor’s teaching style has been demonstrated to have
positive effect on student's performance (Harb & El-Shaarawi, 2006).
According to Reid (1995), learning preference refers to a person’s “natural,
habitual and preferred way” of assimilating new information. This implies that
individuals differ in regard to what mode of instruction or study is most
effective for them. Scholars, who promote the learning preferences approach to
learning, agree that effective instruction can only be undertaken if the
learner’s learning preferences are diagnosed and the instruction is tailored accordingly
(Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer, & Bjork, 2008). “I hear and I forget. I see and
I remember. I do and I understand”. A quote that provides evidence that, even
in early times, there was recognition of the existence of different learning
preferences among people. Indeed, Omrod (2008) reports that some students seem
to learn better when information is presented through words (verbal learners),
whereas others seem to learn better when it is presented in the form of
pictures (visual learners). Clearly in a class where only one instructional
method is employed, there is a strong possibility that a number of students
will find the learning environment less optimal and this could affect their academic
achievement. Felder (1993) established that alignment between students’ learning
preferences and an instructor’s teaching style leads to better recall and understanding.
The learning preferences approach has gained significant mileage despite the
lack of experimental evidence to support the utility of this approach.
There are a number of methods used to assess the
learning preferences/styles of students but they all typically ask students to
evaluate the kind of information presentation they are most at ease with. One
of these approaches being used widely is the Visual/Aural/Read and Write/Kinaesthetic
(VARKR) questionnaire, pioneered by Neil Fleming in 1987, which categorizes
learners into at least four major learning preferences classes. Neil Flemming
(2001-2011) described these four major learning preferences as follows:
•
Visual learners: students who prefer information to be presented on the whiteboard,
flip charts, walls, graphics, pictures, colour. Probably creative and may use
different colours and diagrams in their notebooks.
•
Read/write learners: prefer to read the information for themselves and take a lot of
notes. These learners benefit from given access to additional relevant
information through handouts and guided readings.
•
Kinesthetic (or tactile) learners: these learners cannot sit still for long and
like to fiddle with things. Prefer to be actively involved in their learning
and thus would benefit from active learning strategies in class.
A number of learners are indeed, multimodal,
with more than one preferred style of learning in addition to using different
learning styles for different components of the same subject. There is a strong
possibility that learning preferences would depend on the subject matter being
taught. The question that arises is whether a particular learning preference is
favoured in certain subjects/courses.
Students’
Class attendance
In his widely cited paper, Romer (1993) is one
of the first few authors to explore the relationship between student attendance
and achievement. A number of factors have contributed to declining class
attendances around the world in the last 15 years. The major reasons given by
students for non-attendance include assessment pressures, poor delivery of
teaching, timing of teaching, and work commitments (Newman-Ford, Lloyd &
Thomas, 2009). The use of information technology also means that information
that used to be obtained from sitting through teaching can be obtained at the
click of a mouse.
Indeed, web-based learning approaches have
become the order of the day. Given all these developments that either makes it
impossible or unnecessary for students to attend classes, the question that
needs to be asked is whether absenteeism affects students’ academic achievement.
Research on this subject seems to provide a consensus that students who miss
classes perform poorly compared to those who attend classes (Devadoss &
Foltz, 2006; Durden & Ellis, 2005; Romer, 2003; Park & Kerr, 2000;
Schmidt, 1997). Based on these findings a number of stakeholders have called
for mandatory class attendance. Although the existing evidence points to a
strong correlation between attendance and academic achievement, none of the studies
cited above demonstrate a causal effect. The inability of these cross-sectional
studies to isolate attendance from a myriad of confounding student
characteristics (e.g. levels of motivation, intelligence, prior learning, and
time-management skills) is a major limiting factor to the utility of these findings
(Rodgers & Rodgers, 2008).
Durden and Ellis, (2005) controlled for student
differences in background, ability and motivation, and reported a nonlinear
effect of attendance on learning, that is, a few absences do not lead to poor
grades but excessive absenteeism does.
Socioeconomic status of students
Socioeconomic status of students and their
families show moderate to strong relationship
with academic achievement (Sirin, 2005) but these relationships are contingent upon a number of factors
such that it is nearly impossible to predict
academic achievement using socioeconomic status.
Gender factor: The most important
fact discovered by psychologists about sex difference is that they are
generally speaking much smaller than as popularly believed compared with the
individual difference that psychological tests have shown to exist within one
sex. They are very small indeed, especially, on the intellectual side. Burt
(vol. 1) said that boys and girls differ slightly on their rates of
development, both physically and mentally. They seem to play a sort of
statistical frog-leap; now one group is up and the other down throughout their
whole school course. Thus, between the ages of 11-14 years, girls are slightly
taller, heavier and remember better than boys, but from 15 years onwards, the
boys outstrip the girls. Hughes (2000) in his work judged by intelligence test,
boys and girls are on an average equal. The range of ability is however
slightly greater among boys than among girls, such that there are more
exceptional boys at both ends of the scale. The fact that there has been more
man genius than woman does not mean that men are generally more intelligent
than women. It is probably to a large extent, the result of this difference in
variability. Girls are superior to boys in verbal ability. They read more and
write more than boys while boys are superior to girls in mathematical and
mechanical ability. Girls are more skillful than boys in making movement that
require independent finger control but boys excel in movement requiring
strength and speed of movement.
Burt, in his researches with Binet
test found out a singular paralleled between tests which are easier for girls
and those which are easier for students of a better social class. Burt comments
that girls no matter the class do better in linguistic work and conservation
activities while boys have more to do with practical perception out of door
pursuits. Boys and girls show different type of behaviour as they adjust
differently to the same environment and situation.
Abani (2009) did a study on
emotional stability and social adjustment of the products of two secondary
schools in Nigeria. He found out that girls participate in normal school crime
norms. Currently, there is the popularization of the adage that whatever a man
can, a woman can also do if not better. Females are making their footprints in
the sands of time.
According to Euler-Ajayi (2008)
posited that it is universally accepted that females constitute more than 50%
of a country’s population. With reference to Nigeria, nearly half of its
population is females. The 1991 provisional census figures indicate that there
are 44,544,531 males in Nigeria whereas there are 45,968,970 females. It is
however a source of concern in many quarters that there is generally a wide gap
between male and female on academic achievement in mathematics attainment.
Review of Related Empirical Studies
It
is necessary to review some studies carried in educational institutions as to
ensure direct relevance with the present study. Odo (2009) investigated gender
and school location related difference with respect to difficulties in geometry
among students. The study employed analytic survey design because the
researcher did not manipulate the independent variables. Three research
questions and two hypotheses guided the study. The population of the study was
all senior secondary school three students in Nsukka and Obollo Education Zones
of Enugu State. The sample of the study is 1,000 students made up of 492
(49.2%) males and 508 (50.8%) females comprising 515 (51.5%) urban students and
485 (48.5%) rural students. All the 14 secondary schools (7 urban and 7 rural)
comprising two boys’ schools (1 urban and 2 rural), three girls’ schools (2
urban and 1 rural) and 9 mixed (4 urban and 5 rural) were used for the study.
This sample was obtained using cluster proportionate random sampling technique.
The study made use of instrument titled TOSSG for data collection. It was a
researcher’s made instrument based on the geometry content of Mathematics
curriculum using a test blue print. The result of the analysis carried out
indicated that performance of students in geometry was generally low. The
performance of students in geometry was observed more in such aspects as
construction and locus, geometric proves and applications and 3-dimensional
mathematical concept. The analysis also showed that gender and school locations
are significant predictors of students’ difficulties in geometry. Boys
experienced less difficulty than girls while urban students experienced less
difficulty than rural counterparts. The implication of these findings was that
there was need to streamline geometry content in Mathematics curriculum with a
view to removing sex biases. Since sex differences are not innate but due to
imbalance in the experience of both sexes, such imbalance may rise from sex
stereotypes in the curriculum whereby girls are not encouraged to study Science
and Mathematics. The researcher based on the findings recommended that geometry
be given more prominence in the Mathematics programmes of Colleges of Education
so as to improve the quality of geometry that Mathematics teachers will
possess. In the interim, the “MAN” should organize refresher courses for
Mathematics teachers to enable them update their knowledge in geometry. The
study is related to the present study since both studies are focused on gender.
It is worthy to note that the study focused on gender and learning (students)
and could not look at the effects of gender on teaching (teacher) which the
present study focuses on.
Similarly,
Ikoro (2011) partly supported Odo (2009) by maintaining that poor performance
of female students in Mathematics and Integrated Science was as a result of
gender differences. Ikoro carried out the study as a result as result for
concern for the poor performance of female students in Mathematics and Science.
It was therefore the aim of the study to identify if test items on Mathematics
of JSCE showed gender bias. Two research questions hypotheses guided the study.
Past JSS III question papers on Mathematics and Sciences was administered to
the students for the purpose of eliciting relevant data. The sample was 220
students randomly sampled from eight secondary schools out of 27 in Ebonyi
North Education Zone. The data were analyzed using percentages, mean and
standard deviation. The hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance
using t-test and chi-square (ᵡ2) of proportion. The result revealed
that Mathematics test items for JSCE are gender bias and there was significant
difference between males and females performance. The researcher recommended
that Mathematics and Science be reviewed to reflect most characteristics of the
female roles without generating cognitive disequilibrium and build separate
laboratory equipment for science courses. The study since it looked at gender
is related to the present study, but could not treat the gender effects on
students’ achievement in teaching of Mathematics which the present study is
handling.
Okafor
(2001) investigated the age and gender effects on students’ alternative
conceptions of scientific phenomena. The
researcher used expost factor design in the study. 522 senior secondary school
students one (SS 1) were sampled in Aguata Education Zone of Anambra State. The
stratified random sampling technique was used in the study. Self made
instrument titled “Alternative Conception Scientific Phenomena Test (ACSPT)”
was used. The data collected was analyzed using chi-square (ᵡ2) and
findings related that most students had Western scientific view of motion. It
also revealed that age and gender are not significant factors in students’
conception of motion. The study relates the present study which deals with
gender effects in secondary schools. However, the study could not look at how
gender effects students’ achievement in teaching and learning in the area which
the present study is addressing.
Summary of Literature Review
The conceptual framework discussed
the gender as being essential in students’ achievement in teaching and learning
of Mathematics in secondary schools. The concepts of Mathematics Education,
teaching and learning of Mathematics were also discussed under the conceptual
frame work. Students’ achievement and factors affecting it; Sex difference and
achievement; Sex difference and its effect on students’ mental development and
academic achievement were reviewed under the theoretical studies. Three studies
related to the study were also reviewed. The gaps created were identified and
will be closed by the findings of the present study.
CHAPTER THREE
METHOD
This chapter covers the following
aspects: the design, area of the study, population of the study, sample and
sampling technique, reliability of instrument, methods of data collection and
method of data analysis.
Design of the Study
The
design of the study was a descriptive survey. It is a survey because it only
sought to find out the study of a natural existing phenomenon of gender effects
on students’ achievement in teaching and learning of Mathematics in junior
secondary schools. According to Nworgu (2006), descriptive survey is a design
of those studies which aim at collecting data on and describing in a systematic
manner the characteristics, features or facts about a population. Therefore,
the study is a descriptive survey since it satisfied the above definition by
Nworgu (2006).
Area of the Study
The
area of the study is Uzouwani Local Government Area in Enugu State. The local
government has been reported to have poor Mathematics achievement (Ezeh, 2007).
The content area was on the effects of gender on students’ achievement in
teaching and learning of Mathematics in junior secondary schools.
Population of the Study
The population of the study
consisted of eight hundred sixty-nine (869) junior secondary school (JSS III)
Mathematics students and Mathematics teachers of the twelve (12) public
secondary schools in Uzouwani Local Government Area of Enugu State. There were
857 JSS 3 students (402 males and 455 females) and 12 Mathematics teachers (8
males and 4 females) in the twelve (12) secondary schools in Uzouwani Local
Government Area.
Sample and Sampling Technique
All
the eight hundred sixty-nine (869) junior secondary school (JSS III)
Mathematics students and Mathematics teachers of the twelve (12) public
secondary schools in the area of the study formed the sample of the study. A purposive sampling technique was used to
select all the twelve (12) public secondary schools that were presently enrolled
students for the Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE) in Uzouwani
Local Government Area. The same sampling technique was used to sample all the
857 JSS 3 students and 12 Mathematics teachers in those schools. The sample
distribution is showcased in the table below.
Table 1: Distribution of the Sample
for the study
|
S/N
|
Name of schools
|
Number of JSS 3 Mathematics
students
|
Number of JSS 3 Mathematics
teachers
|
||
|
Male
|
Female
|
Male
|
Female
|
||
|
1
|
A.S.S, Nkplogu
|
26
|
17
|
1
|
-
|
|
2
|
U.S. S, Adani
|
40
|
44
|
1
|
-
|
|
3
|
A.M.H.S, Adaba
|
15
|
24
|
-
|
1
|
|
4
|
G.S.S, Umulokpa
|
-
|
42
|
-
|
1
|
|
5
|
C.S.S, Abbi/Ugbene
|
59
|
67
|
1
|
-
|
|
6
|
C.S.S, Ukpata
|
21
|
11
|
1
|
-
|
|
7
|
C.S.S, Nimbo
|
45
|
51
|
1
|
-
|
|
8
|
C.S.S, Ogurugu
|
66
|
68
|
1
|
-
|
|
9
|
U.S.S, Uvuru
|
21
|
38
|
-
|
1
|
|
10
|
C.H.S, Nrobo
|
63
|
50
|
1
|
-
|
|
11
|
W.S.S, Opanda
|
16
|
13
|
-
|
1
|
|
12
|
C.S.S, Ugbene-Ajima
|
30
|
30
|
1
|
-
|
|
|
Total
|
402
|
455
|
08
|
04
|
Source: Statistics Office, Post
Primary School Management Board (PPSMB), Nsukka Education Zone, 2014/15 Session.
Instrument for Data Collection
Two
instruments were used for the study. These included a researchers’ made
instrument titled “Attitude Questionnaire for Mathematics Teaching and Learning
(AQMTL)”; and cumulative scores of the students’ achievement test. The AQMTL
were in two forms (One for students and one for teachers). The AQMTL for
students and teachers consisted of twenty (20) and nineteen (19) items
respectively on four (4) point Likert rating scale of Strongly Agree (SA),
Agree (A), Disagree (D), and Strongly Disagree (SD) which elicited information
from the teachers and students on their attitudes towards teaching and learning
of Mathematics. The researchers used the cumulative scores of the students’
achievement test to determine the mean achievement level of the students. All
items have the same rating patterns which were weighted 4, 3, 2, and1 for
Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D), and Strongly Disagree (SD)
respectively. The weighted values of 4, 3, 2, and1 also stood for Distinction
(A), Credit (C), Pass (P) and Fail (F) respectively in the achievement scores
used.
Validation of Instrument
To
establish the validity of the instrument (AQMTL), the researchers exposed the
items to one expert in Mathematics Education and one in the Measurement and
Evaluation in the Nwafor Orizu College of Education, Nsugbe in affiliation with
the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. These experts were appealed to kindly look
at the items in order to point out to the researchers the statements that were
poorly worded and those that do not correspond with the purpose of the study
and advise the researchers on suitability of the questionnaires.
Reliability of the Instrument
The
AQMTL was trial tested using 5 teachers and 15 students from 5 secondary
schools in Igbo-Etiti Local Government Area of Enugu State. Igbo-Etiti is
outside the area of the study but contingent to the area of study. To determine the reliability of the
instrument, the responses from the 5 teachers and 15 students in the trial
testing of the instrument were used to establish the internal consistency
reliability of the instrument using the Cronbach Alpha method. This method was
considered appropriate because the items in the instrument were
non-dichotomously scored. The internal consistency reliability estimate of the
questionnaire yielded 0.55 which indicates that the instrument is reliable.
Method of Data Collection
The
attitude questionnaire was distributed to 857 JSS 3 Mathematics students in the
sampled schools with the 12 Mathematics teachers. So, a total of 869 copies of
the questionnaire were distributed to the respondents. A direct delivery method
was used and each collected immediately after being responded and the data
collected were used for analysis.
Method of Data Analysis
Frequency
and percentage were used to answer research questions 1 and 2, while mean and
standard deviation were used to answer research questions 3, 4 and 5. Real limit
of 0.1-1.0, 1.1-2.0, 2.1-3.0, and 3.1-4.0 was used to interpret the results for
research question 3 as Failure level, Pass level, Credit level and Distinction
level respectively; and to interpret the results for research questions 4 and 5
as Strongly Disagree (SD), Disagree (D), Agree (A), and Strongly Agree (SA)
respectively. The t-test was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 significance
level.
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
This
chapter deals with the presentation and analysis of data collected from
respondents in answer to the attitude questionnaire test. These are organized
around the five(5) research questions and three(3) hypotheses that guided the
study. The results are presented in tables as thus:
Research Question 1:
What is the proportion of male and
female teachers teaching junior secondary school (class 3) Mathematics?
Table 2: The proportion of male and
female teachers teaching JSS 3 mathematics in the sampled schools.
|
S/N
|
Name of secondary schools
|
Number of Mathematics
teachers
|
|||
|
Male
|
Female
|
||||
|
Frequency (f)
|
Percentage (%)
|
Frequency (f)
|
Percentage (%)
|
||
|
1
|
A.S.S, Nkpologu
|
1
|
8.33
|
0
|
0
|
|
2
|
U.S. S, Adani
|
1
|
8.33
|
0
|
0
|
|
3
|
A.M.H.S, Adaba
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
8.33
|
|
4
|
G.S.S, Umulokpa
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
8.33
|
|
5
|
C.S.S, Abbi/Ugbene
|
1
|
8.33
|
0
|
0
|
|
6
|
C.S.S, Ukpata
|
1
|
8.33
|
0
|
0
|
|
7
|
C.S.S, Nimbo
|
1
|
8.33
|
0
|
0
|
|
8
|
C.S.S, Ogurugu
|
1
|
8.33
|
0
|
0
|
|
9
|
U.S.S, Uvuru
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
8.33
|
|
10
|
C.H.S, Nrobo
|
1
|
8.33
|
0
|
0
|
|
11
|
W.S.S, Opanda
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
8.33
|
|
12
|
C.S.S, Ugbene-Ajima
|
1
|
8.33
|
0
|
0
|
|
|
Total
|
8
|
66.64
|
4
|
33.32
|
The table 2 above reveals that the
proportion/percentage of male and female teachers teaching junior secondary
school (class 3) mathematics in the area of the study is 66.64% and 33.32%
respectively. This indicates a higher percentage of the male folks in the
Mathematics teaching in the junior secondary schools.
Research Question 2
What is the proportion of male and
female students studying JSS 3 Mathematics?
Table 3: The proportion of male and
female students studying Mathematics in the sampled schools
|
S/N
|
Name of secondary schools
|
Number of Mathematics
students
|
|||
|
Male
|
Female
|
||||
|
Frequency (f)
|
Percentage (%)
|
Frequency (f)
|
Percentage (%)
|
||
|
1
|
A.S.S, Nkpologu
|
26
|
3.03
|
17
|
2.00
|
|
2
|
U.S. S, Adani
|
40
|
4.67
|
44
|
5.13
|
|
3
|
A.M.H.S, Adaba
|
15
|
1.75
|
24
|
2.80
|
|
4
|
G.S.S, Umulokpa
|
-
|
-
|
42
|
4.90
|
|
5
|
C.S.S, Abbi/Ugbene
|
59
|
6.88
|
67
|
7.82
|
|
6
|
C.S.S, Ukpata
|
21
|
2.45
|
11
|
1.28
|
|
7
|
C.S.S, Nimbo
|
45
|
5.25
|
51
|
5.95
|
|
8
|
C.S.S, Ogurugu
|
66
|
7.70
|
68
|
7.93
|
|
9
|
U.S.S, Uvuru
|
21
|
2.45
|
38
|
4.43
|
|
10
|
C.H.S, Nrobo
|
63
|
7.35
|
50
|
5.83
|
|
11
|
W.S.S, Opanda
|
16
|
1.87
|
13
|
1.52
|
|
12
|
C.S.S, Ugbene-Ajima
|
30
|
3.50
|
30
|
3.50
|
|
|
Total
|
402
|
46.90
|
455
|
53.09
|
Table 3 above shows that the
proportion/percentage of male and female students studying Mathematics at the
junior secondary level in the area of study is 46.90% and 53.09% respectively. This
indicates a higher percentage of female students enrolling generally for junior
secondary school education; not even only in Mathematics study since
Mathematics is a general compulsory subject in the secondary school education
system.
Research Question 3
What are the mean achievement scores of junior
secondary school (JSS 3) students taught by male and female Mathematics
teachers?
Table 4: The mean achievement
scores and standard deviation of students taught by male and female Mathematics
teachers
|
S/N
|
Items
|
N
|
 Χ |
SD
|
|
1
|
Students taught by male teachers
|
688
|
2.84
|
0.72
|
|
2
|
Students taught by female
teachers
|
169
|
2.80
|
0.59
|
Table 4 shows that the mean
achievement scores of the students taught by male teachers is 2.84 while the
students taught by female teacher is 2.80 in favour of students taught by male
teachers. This indicates that the mean achievement scores of both students
taught by male and female teachers are at credit level which ranges from
2.1-3.0.
Hypothesis 1:
There is no statistically
significance difference in the mean achievement scores of JSS 3 students taught
by male and female teachers.
Table 5: t-test of independent
sample showing the difference in mean achievement scores of JSS3 students
taught by male and female mathematics teachers.
|
Students
|
N
|
Mean
|
SD
|
t
|
Degree of freedom (df)
|
Sig. (2-tailed)
|
Level of sig.
|
Decision
|
|
Taught by male mathematics
teachers
|
688
|
2.84
|
0.72
|
0.8
|
855
|
0.42
|
0.05
|
NS
|
|
Taught by female mathematics
teachers
|
169
|
2.80
|
0.59
|
Note: S=Significance, NS= Not significance.
Table 5 shows that significant
(2-tailed) (0.42 is greater than the level of significance of 0.05. Therefore, the null hypothesis which states
that there is no statistically significance difference in the mean achievement
scores of JSS 3 students taught by male and female mathematics teachers was
accepted. Hence, the alternative hypothesis was rejected.
Research Question 4:
What is the mean attitude rating of
students taught by male and female teachers towards Mathematics?
Table 6: Mean and standard
deviation of attitude ratings of students taught by male and female mathematics
teachers
|
S/N
|
Items
|
Students taught by male teachers
N=688
|
Students taught by female
teachers N=169
|
||||
|
Mean
|
SD
|
Decision
|
Mean
|
SD
|
Decision
|
||
|
1
|
I am always eager to learn/study
mathematics.
|
3.3343
|
0.6235
|
SA
|
3.3314
|
0.6241
|
SA
|
|
2
|
I do mathematics assignment
regularly.
|
1.1672
|
0.3734
|
D
|
1.1716
|
0.3782
|
D
|
|
3
|
I perceive mathematics as
difficult subject.
|
2.2471
|
1.0899
|
A
|
2.2189
|
1.0881
|
A
|
|
4
|
I do not make out time to study
mathematics.
|
1.0000
|
0.0000
|
SD
|
0.0000
|
0.0000
|
SD
|
|
5
|
I have no interest in
studying/studying mathematics.
|
1.3328
|
0.4716
|
D
|
0.4742
|
0.4742
|
D
|
|
6
|
I pay nonchalant attitude to
mathematics.
|
1.0000
|
0.0000
|
SD
|
1.0000
|
0.0000
|
SD
|
|
7
|
I find mathematics very difficult
to learn.
|
1.4157
|
0.4932
|
D
|
1.4201
|
0.4950
|
D
|
|
8
|
I hate mathematics.
|
2.6642
|
0.7451
|
A
|
2.6627
|
0.7471
|
A
|
|
9
|
I have negative feelings in
learning mathematics.
|
3.4186
|
0.6401
|
SA
|
3.4201
|
0.6417
|
SA
|
|
10
|
I have positive feelings in
learning mathematics.
|
2.0000
|
0.8147
|
D
|
2.0000
|
0.8165
|
D
|
|
11
|
I am never available for
mathematics lessons.
|
2.6686
|
0.6228
|
A
|
2.6686
|
0.6241
|
A
|
|
12
|
I devote little time to the
learning of mathematics.
|
1.0828
|
0.2759
|
SD
|
1.0828
|
0.2765
|
SD
|
|
13
|
I enjoy receiving mathematics
lesson.
|
3.4985
|
0.5004
|
SA
|
3.4970
|
0.5051
|
SA
|
|
14
|
I dislike mathematics for it
demands logical reasoning.
|
4.0000
|
0.0000
|
SA
|
4.0000
|
0.0000
|
SA
|
|
15
|
I play mathematics games as a
hobby.
|
3.3328
|
0.4716
|
SA
|
3.3314
|
0.4721
|
SA
|
|
16
|
I am always reluctant to
learn/study mathematics.
|
4.0000
|
0.0000
|
SA
|
4.0000
|
0.0000
|
SA
|
|
17
|
I pass mathematics examinations.
|
3.2500
|
1.0130
|
SA
|
3.2367
|
1.0251
|
SA
|
|
18
|
I attend mathematics class
always.
|
2.4215
|
0.9559
|
A
|
2.4201
|
.9549
|
A
|
|
19
|
I devote much time to learn
mathematics.
|
2.4215
|
0.9559
|
A
|
2.4201
|
0.9549
|
A
|
|
20
|
I always escape from mathematics
class.
|
2.4215
|
0.9559
|
A
|
2.4201
|
0.9549
|
A
|
Note: SA= Strongly Agree, A= Agree, D= Disagree, SD= Strongly Disagree
Table 6 above reveals that the
attitude of both the students taught by male and female teachers towards
learning of mathematics is alike. This is because in each item, the mean
attitude ratings for both groups lie in the same range of real limit.
Hypothesis 2:
There is no statistically
significant difference in mean attitude ratings of students taught by male and
female mathematics teachers towards learning of mathematics.
Table 7: t-test of independent
sample showing the difference in mean attitude rating of students taught by
male and female mathematics teachers towards learning of mathematics.
|
Attitude of Students
|
N
|
Mean
|
SD
|
t
|
Degree of freedom (df)
|
Sig. (2-tailed)
|
Level of sig.
|
Decision
|
|
Taught by male mathematics
teachers
|
688
|
2.43
|
0.20
|
0.71
|
855
|
0.91
|
0.05
|
NS
|
|
Taught by female mathematics
teachers
|
169
|
2.43
|
0.21
|
Note: S=Significance, NS= Not
significance.
Table 7 shows that significance (2-tailed)
(0.91) is greater than the level of significance of 0.05. Therefore, the null
hypothesis which states that there is no statistically significant difference
in the mean attitude rating of students taught by male and female mathematics
teachers towards learning of mathematics was accepted. Hence, the alternative
hypothesis was rejected.
Research Question 5:
What is the mean attitude rating of
male and female teachers towards the teaching of Mathematics?
Table 8: Mean and Standard
deviation of attitude ratings of male and female teachers towards teaching of
mathematics
|
S/N
|
Items
|
Male Mathematics teachers. N=8
|
Female Mathematics teachers. N=4
|
||||
|
Mean
|
SD
|
Decision
|
Mean
|
SD
|
Decision
|
||
|
1
|
I am always eager to teach
mathematics.
|
3.2500
|
0.7071
|
SA
|
3.2500
|
0.9574
|
SA
|
|
2
|
I give mathematics assignment
regularly.
|
1.2500
|
0.4629
|
D
|
1.2500
|
0.5000
|
D
|
|
3
|
I perceive mathematics as
difficult subject.
|
2.0000
|
1.0690
|
D
|
2.5000
|
1.2910
|
A
|
|
4
|
I carry out thorough research
before teaching mathematics.
|
1.0000
|
0.0000
|
SD
|
0.0000
|
0.0000
|
SD
|
|
5
|
I have no interest in teaching
mathematics.
|
1.3750
|
0.5176
|
D
|
1.2500
|
0.5000
|
D
|
|
6
|
I find mathematics very difficult
to teach.
|
1.0000
|
0.0000
|
SD
|
1.0000
|
0.0000
|
SD
|
|
7
|
I have negative feelings towards
teaching mathematics.
|
1.3750
|
0.5176
|
D
|
1.2500
|
0.5000
|
D
|
|
8
|
I devote little time to the teaching
mathematics.
|
2.7500
|
0.8864
|
A
|
2.7500
|
0.9574
|
A
|
|
9
|
I find mathematics very easy to
teach.
|
3.2500
|
0.7071
|
SA
|
3.2500
|
0.9574
|
SA
|
|
10
|
I enjoy teaching mathematics
lesson always.
|
2.1250
|
0.9910
|
A
|
1.7500
|
0.9574
|
D
|
|
11
|
I dislike mathematics for it
demands logical reasoning.
|
2.6250
|
0.7440
|
A
|
2.2500
|
0.5000
|
A
|
|
12
|
I teach mathematics with games.
|
1.0000
|
0.0000
|
SD
|
1.0000
|
0.0000
|
SD
|
|
13
|
I am always reluctant to teach mathematics.
|
3.5000
|
0.5345
|
SA
|
3.2500
|
0.5000
|
SA
|
|
14
|
I teach mathematics always.
|
4.0000
|
0.0000
|
SA
|
4.0000
|
0.0000
|
SA
|
|
15
|
I have positive feelings towards
teaching mathematics.
|
3.3750
|
0.5176
|
SA
|
3.2500
|
0.5000
|
SA
|
|
16
|
I devote much time to the
teaching of mathematics.
|
4.0000
|
0.0000
|
SA
|
4.0000
|
0.0000
|
SA
|
|
17
|
I have interest in teaching
mathematics.
|
3.3750
|
0.9161
|
SA
|
2.7500
|
0.9574
|
A
|
|
18
|
I teach mathematics to make a
living.
|
2.2500
|
1.0351
|
A
|
2.0000
|
1.4142
|
D
|
|
19
|
I teach mathematics due to lack
of job opportunity.
|
2.2500
|
1.0351
|
A
|
2.0000
|
1.4142
|
D
|
Note: SA= Strongly Agree, A= Agree,
D= Disagree, SD= Strongly Disagree
Table 8 above reveals that the
attitude of both male and female mathematics teachers towards mathematics
teaching was in the same boat except in items 3,10,17,18 and 19 where their
attitude deviate from each other. This is because the mean attitude rating of
the male teachers are: 2.00, 2.13, 3.38, 2.25 and 2.23 for items 3,10,17,18 and
19 respectively indicating Disagree (D) for item 3, Strongly Agree (SA) for
item 17 and Agree (A) for item 10, 18 and 19. This is against the mean attitude
of the female counterpart which is 2.50, 1.75, 2.00 and 2.00 for the items
3,10,17,18 and 19 respectively indicating Agree (A) for items 3 and 17,
Disagree (D) for items 10, 18 and 19.
Hypothesis 3:
There is no statistically significant
difference in the mean attitude ratings of male and female teachers towards
teaching of mathematics.
Table 9: t-test of independent
sample showing the difference in mean attitude ratings of male female teachers towards
teaching of mathematics
|
Teachers
|
N
|
Mean
|
SD
|
t
|
Degree of freedom (df)
|
Sig. (2-tailed)
|
Level of sig.
|
Decision
|
|
Male
|
8
|
2.30
|
0.28
|
0.00
|
10
|
1.00
|
0.05
|
NS
|
|
Female
|
4
|
2.30
|
0.30
|
Note: S=Significance, NS= Not
significance.
Table 9 shows that significant
(2-tailed) (1.00) is greater than the level of significance of 0.05. Therefore,
the null hypothesis which states that there is no statistically significant
difference in the mean attitude ratings of male and female teachers towards
teaching of mathematics was accepted. Hence, the alternative hypothesis was
rejected.
Summary of the findings
The findings of the study revealed
that:
The proportion/percentage of male Mathematics
teachers is greater than that of the female counterpart teaching the junior
secondary school (JSS3) Mathematics students in Uzo-uwani local government
area.
The proportion/percentage of female
(JSS3) students studying Mathematics in junior secondary school is greater than
the male JSS3 students studying the subject in Uzo-uwani local government area.
The mean achievement scores of JSS3
students taught by male Mathematics teachers and female mathematics teacher are
both at credit level in Uzo-uwani local government area.
The mean ratings of attitude of
both students (JSS3) taught by male Mathematics teachers and female Mathematics
teachers are on the same plane in Uzo-uwani local government area as responded
by both groups of students.
The mean ratings of attitude of
both male Mathematics teachers and female Mathematics teachers of JSS3 students
towards teaching of mathematics are in the same boat in uzo-uwani local
government area except in few areas as responded by both groups of teachers.
There is no statistically
significant difference in the mean achievement scores of JSS3 students taught
by male and female mathematics teachers in Uzo-uwani local government area.
There is no statistically
significance difference in the mean ratings of attitude of JSS3 students taught
by male and female mathematics teachers towards learning of mathematics in Uzo-uwani
local government area.
There is no statistically
significance difference in the mean ratings of attitude of male mathematics
teachers and female mathematics teachers of JSS3 students towards teaching of
mathematics.
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY
This chapter presents the
discussion of the findings of the study, the conclusion, educational
implications, recommendations, limitation of the study, suggestions for further
studies and summary of the study.
Discussion of the findings of the
study:
Discussion
of the findings is presented in line with the research questions and hypotheses
that guided this study under the following sub-headings.
The proportion/percentage of male
and female Mathematics teachers in the junior secondary school.
The proportion/percentage of male
and female junior secondary school students studying Mathematics.
The difference in mean achievement
scores of junior secondary school students taught by male and female Mathematics
teachers.
The difference in mean ratings of
attitude of junior secondary school students taught by male and female Mathematics
teachers of junior secondary school towards mathematics learning.
The difference in mean ratings of
attitude of male and female Mathematics teachers of junior secondary school
towards mathematics teaching.
Proportion/Percentage of Male and
Female Mathematics Teachers in the Junior Secondary School
The
findings from table two (2) revealed that the proportion/percentage of male Mathematics
teachers in the area of the study is greater than that of the female folks.
This is found from the frequencies and percentages of the male and female Mathematics
teachers in junior secondary school determined from the junior secondary school
Mathematics teachers’ population data obtained from the Post Primary School
Management Board (PPSMB), Nsukka Education Zone. This higher percentage of male
Mathematics teachers in the junior secondary school could be as a result of the
wrong notion and inferiority mentality of the females that courses involving much
calculation are meant for the males mainly.
This
finding is in line with Odo (2009) which investigated gender and school
location related difference with respect to difficulties in geometry among
students in Nsukka and Obollo Education Zone of Enugu State. The study among
others revealed that boys experienced less difficulty than girls in the
geometry. This could be the fact why females dodge Mathematics related courses
leading to less proportion of female Mathematics teachers in the junior
secondary schools.
Proportion/Percentage of Male and
Female Junior Secondary School (JSS 3) students studying Mathematics
The
findings from table three (3) revealed that the proportion/percentage of female
Mathematics students in the junior secondary schools was higher than that of
the male counterpart. This is found from the frequencies and percentages of
male and female junior secondary school three (JSS 3) students determined from
the JSS 3 students’ population data obtained from the PPSMB, Nsukka Education
Zone. This higher percentage of female students at the JSS level may not be far
from the fact that females were presently more in number than males in schools
especially post primaries. This, out of experience is mostly found in rural
areas which the area of the study belong to. The male folks often quit school
for business after primary education.
This
findings seem to be countering the findings in the table two (2) which found
out that male Mathematics teachers outnumbered the female Mathematics teachers.
This may be for the same reason that these female Mathematics students (future
Mathematics teachers) on coming up to higher schools dodge Mathematics courses
thereby reducing their number below that of males; hence, having more male
Mathematics teachers.
This
is in line with Euler-Ajayi (2008) which posited that it is universally
accepted that females constituted more than 50% of the country’s population.
This was in reference to the Nigeria 1991 census figures indicating the female
population as higher than that of males. It stated that whereas men population
was 44,544,531, that of the females was 45,968,970.
The Difference in Mean Achievement
Scores of Junior Secondary School (JSS 3) Students Taught By Male and Female
Mathematics Teachers
The
findings from table four (4) revealed that that the achievement scores of JSS 3
Mathematics students both the ones taught by male Mathematics teachers and the
ones taught by female Mathematics teachers was at credit level. This was found
from the mean achievement scores in an achievement test (BECE results). The
sameness of the mean achievement scores could be that the teachers’ gender has
no influence on the students’ achievement. The result also revealed from table
five that there was no statistically significant difference in the mean
achievement scores of JSS 3 students taught by male Mathematics teachers and
the ones taught by female Mathematics teachers. This confirmed clearly that
there was no achievement disparity between students under a male teacher and
students under a female teacher. Hence, teachers’ gender can be said to have no
effect on the students’ achievement level.
These findings fault Ikoro (2011)
which maintained that poor performance of female students in Mathematics and
Integrated Science in Ebonyi North Education Zone was as a result of gender
difference. This could be that the gender gap was not closed in education
system of the Ebonyi North Education Zone especially in Mathematics education.
The Attitude of Junior Secondary
School Students Taught by Male and Female Mathematics Teachers of Junior
Secondary School towards Mathematics learning
The
findings from table six (6) revealed that the attitude of both the JSS students
taught by male Mathematics teachers and the ones taught by female Mathematics
teachers towards learning of Mathematics was alike. This is found from the item
by item mean ratings of the two groups on their attitude towards Mathematics
learning. The findings also revealed from table seven that there is no statistically
significant difference in the mean attitude ratings of JSS students towards
learning of Mathematics, both the ones taught by male Mathematics teachers and
the ones taught by female Mathematics teachers. One can adduce here that
teachers’ gender has no influence on students attitude towards the learning of
a subject especially Mathematics.
The Attitude of Male and Female
Mathematics Teachers of Junior Secondary School towards Mathematics teaching
Findings
from table eight (8) revealed that the attitude of both male and female
Mathematics teachers of junior secondary school towards teaching of Mathematics
was in the same boat except in few areas. These areas included: their
perceptions of Mathematics as a difficult subject. Whereas male teachers disagreed
that Mathematics is not a difficult subject, the female teachers agreed to the
perception. Secondly, whereas male teachers agreed to be enjoying Mathematics
teaching, the female counterpart disagreed. Thirdly, the male teachers strongly
agreed to be interested in Mathematics teaching, the female folks only agreed
(not strongly) to be interested in the teaching of the subject. In addition,
the male Mathematics teachers agreed that they teach Mathematics only to make a
living while the female Mathematics teachers disagreed to this conception.
Finally, the male folks agreed that they teach Mathematics due to lack of job
opportunities, whereas the female counterpart disagreed to this feeling. These
few disparities could be, because of the males’ nature of being more bold to
face difficult challenges, but unwilling to go into teaching jobs, while the
females have been identified as weaker vessels (biblically) and shy away from
difficult tasks, but are more willing to go into teaching field. The findings
from table nine also revealed that there is no statistically significant
difference in the mean attitude ratings of male Mathematics teachers and the
female counterpart towards teaching of Mathematics. One can also from this
deduce that the teachers’ attitude towards teaching of a subject (mostly
Mathematics) is gender independent.
This
is in line with Okafor (2001) which investigated the age and gender effects on
students’ conception of scientific phenomena in Aguata Education Zone of
Anambra State. The study found out that age and gender are not significant
factors in students’ (future teachers) conception of scientific phenomena
(motion). This could be that there was little or no gender gap in academic
conception in Aguata (Anambra State).
Conclusions Reached from the
Findings of the Study
From
the results obtained in the study on the effects of gender on students’
achievement in teaching and learning of Mathematics in junior secondary school
(JSS 3), it was that:
The proportion/percentage of male
Mathematics teachers was greater than that of the female Mathematics teachers.
The proportion/percentage of female
Mathematics students in the JSS was greater than that of the male students.
The mean Mathematics achievement
scores of the JSS 3 students, both the ones taught by male teachers and the
ones taught by female teachers were at credit level. There is no statistically
significant difference in their mean achievement scores.
The attitude of students of JSS 3,
both the ones taught by male teachers and the ones taught by female teachers
towards Mathematics learning was on the same plane. There is no statistically
significant difference in their attitude mean ratings.
The attitude of both male
Mathematics teachers and female Mathematics teachers towards teaching of
Mathematics was alike except in few areas. There is no statistically
significant difference in the mean attitude ratings of male Mathematics
teachers and the female counterpart towards teaching of Mathematics.
Educational Implications of the
Study
The
results of this study have obvious educational implications to the students;
the Mathematics teachers; school administrators; school owners and education
ministries and parents. The results of this study have provided empirical
evidence that gender gap in academic achievement is closed. These findings
suggested the need for female teachers of Mathematics in the junior secondary
schools (JSS) and the need to sensitize the male students on the need to enroll
into secondary education.
The
students were revealed here their achievement level. This informs them of the
need to improve. The female students are believed to have cured of their wrong
mentality that males are better in Mathematics related courses.
The
teachers are also informed that the students’ achievement level and that their
gender cannot be an obstacle towards achieving this.
The school administrators are
cleared that teacher’s gender especially in Mathematics has no effect on the
students’ achievement. Hence, principals who used to reject female Mathematics
teachers can see the reason to stop the wrong act. This is also goes to the
school owners.
The education ministries should
embark on lucrative ways of encouraging females who are even more interested in
teaching to enroll more in Mathematics education. This could be through
capacity buildings and workshops.
The parents are informed here
especially in the rural areas to avail their children the opportunity to enroll
into secondary education.
Recommendations
Based on the findings and
conclusions of the study, the following recommendations were made:
The students should be provided
with adequate Mathematics learning environment and resources to improve their
performances.
The school administrators should
provide constant and adequate feedback to the teachers on their instructional
task performances to ensure periodic review and facilitate further improvement
in Mathematics teaching-learning process for improved students’ achievement in
the junior secondary school (JSS).
The school authority should provide
constant and comprehensive feedback on students’ enrollment and Mathematics
achievement to parents in order to sensitize and encourage them to avail them
(their children/wards) of opportunity to enroll into secondary education and
provide required Mathematics text books and other learning materials for their
children or wards.
Government and professional bodies
in the Mathematics education sector should organize periodic capacity
development workshop for students and teachers of Mathematics.
Limitations of the Study
The
generalizations made with respect to this study are however subject to the
following limitations:
The biased attitude association
with self assessment could have influence the result of this study when the
students and teachers of Mathematics were rating their attitude towards
learning and teaching of Mathematics.
Poor road network in Uzo-Uwani
local government area (area of the study) constituted some problems in reading
the respondents.
The result of this study cannot be
generalized to cover all the junior secondary schools in Uzo-Uwani local
government area because the study did not cover the private secondary schools.
Suggestions for further study
Based
on the findings of this study, the limitations as well as the emergence of diverse
related issues in the literature, the researchers suggest further studies on:
Effects of gender on the students’
achievement in teaching and learning of other science subjects like Physics,
Chemistry, Biology, etc.
Effects of gender on the students’ achievement
in teaching and learning of Mathematics in junior secondary schools in other
local government of Enugu State,
Effects of gender on the students’
achievement in teaching and learning of Mathematics in senior secondary schools
both for Uzo-Uwani local government area and/or other local government areas in
Enugu State.
Summary of the study
The
study investigated the effects of gender on students’ achievement in teaching
and learning of Mathematics in junior secondary schools (JSS). The study was guided
by five research questions and three hypotheses. The review of literature was
organized under conceptual/theoretical framework, theoretical studies and
review of empirical studies. The descriptive survey design was adopted for the
study. The study was carried out in Uzo-Uwani local government area of Enugu
State. Eight hundred and sixty nine (869) respondents comprising eight hundred
and fifty seven (857) students (688 taught by male Mathematics teachers, 169
taught by female Mathematics teachers) and twelve (12) Mathematics teachers (8
males and 4 female) from the local government area constituted the sample for
the study. The purposive sampling technique was used to select the sample for
the study. The instruments used for data collection were the Attitude
questionnaire and BECE 2014 results. The Attitude questionnaire was
researchers-developed instrument titled “Attitude Questionnaire for Mathematics
teaching and learning (AQMTL)”. The data collected from the study were analyzed
using frequencies, percentages, mean and standard deviation to answer research
questions. T-test was used to test the hypotheses. The results revealed that
the proportion of male Mathematics teachers was greater than the female
Mathematics teachers, but the female students’ percentage was greater than the
male folks. It was also found out that there was no statically significant
difference in the mean achievement and attitude of the Mathematics students
both the ones taught by male teachers and the ones taught by female teachers.
It also revealed that there is no statistically significant difference in the
mean rating of attitude of male and female Mathematics teachers towards
Mathematics teaching.
In
line with the findings of the study, the education implications of the study were
highlighted and the recommendations were equally proffered. Finally, the
limitations of the study and suggestions for further studies were made.
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APPENDICES
Appendix A: The final instrument
used for Mathematics teachers.
Department of Mathematics Education,
Nwafor-Orizu College of Education,
Nsugbe in Affliation with
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
18th November, 2013.
Dear Respondent,
ATTITUDE QUESTIONAIRE FOR
MATHEMATICS TEACHING & LEARNING FOR TEACHERS
We
are degree students of the above – named institution. We are carrying out a
research on effect of gender on students’ achievement in teaching and learning
of Mathematics in junior secondary schools in Uzouwani L.G.A. of Enugu
State. We would appreciate it if you
help us by responding objectively to the items on the rating scale attached.
Your responses will be used in confidence as you are not expected to
indicate your name.
Thanks
in anticipation of your assistance.
Yours faithfully,
ATTITUDE QUESTIONAIRE FOR MATHEMATICS TEACHING & LEARNING FOR
TEACHERS
SECTION A. PERSONAL DATA OF RATERS
Name of
School------------------------------------------------
Gender M ( ) F
( )
SECTION B: TEACHERS’ ATTITUDE
TOWARDS TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS.
Below
are statements regarding teachers’ attitude towards teaching of mathematics.
Please indicate in the column that best expresses your opinion in this issue
using the following options.
KEY:
Strongly Agree (SA)………… 4 points
Agree (A)…………………. ….3 points
Disagree (D)………………….. 2 points
Strongly Disagree (SD)………..1 point
|
S/N
|
ITEMS
|
4
|
3
|
2
|
1
|
|
1
|
I am always eager to teach
Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
2
|
I give Mathematics assignment
regularly.
|
|
|
|
|
|
3
|
I perceive Mathematics as
difficult subject.
|
|
|
|
|
|
4
|
I carry out thorough research before
teaching Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
5
|
I have no interest in teaching Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
6
|
I find Mathematics very difficult
to teach.
|
|
|
|
|
|
7
|
I have negative feelings towards
teaching Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
8
|
I devote little time to the
teaching of Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
9
|
I find Mathematics very easy to
teach.
|
|
|
|
|
|
10
|
I enjoy teaching Mathematics lesson always.
|
|
|
|
|
|
11
|
I dislike Mathematics for it
demands logical reasoning.
|
|
|
|
|
|
12
|
I Mathematics with games.
|
|
|
|
|
|
13
|
I am always reluctant to teach
Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
14
|
I teach Mathematics always.
|
|
|
|
|
|
15
|
I have positive feelings towards
teaching Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
16
|
I devote much time to the
teaching of Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
17
|
I have no interest in teaching
Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
18
|
I teach Mathematics to make a
living.
|
|
|
|
|
|
19
|
I teach Mathematics due to lack
of job opportunity.
|
|
|
|
|
Appendix B: The final instrument
used for JSS 3 Mathematics students.
Department of Mathematics
Education,
Nwafor-Orizu College of Education,
Nsugbe in Affliation with
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
18th November, 2013.
Dear Respondent,
ATTITUDE QUESTIONAIRE FOR
MATHEMATICS TEACHING & LEARNING FOR STUDENTS
We
are degree students of the above – named institution. We are carrying out a
research on effect of gender on students’ achievement in teaching and learning
of Mathematics in junior secondary schools in Uzouwani L.G.A. of Enugu
State. We would appreciate it if you
help us by responding objectively to the items on the rating scale attached.
Your responses will be used in confidence as you are not expected to
indicate your name.
Thanks
in anticipation of your assistance.
Yours faithfully,
ATTITUDE QUESTIONAIRE FOR
MATHEMATICS TEACHING & LEARNING FOR STUDENTS
SECTION A. PERSONAL DATA OF RATERS
Name of
School------------------------------------------------
Your teacher’s gender M ( ) F
( )
SECTION B: STUDENTS’ ATTITUDE
TOWARDS LEARNING OF MATHEMATICS.
Below
are statements regarding students’ attitude towards learning of mathematics.
Please indicate in the column that best expresses your opinion in this issue
using the following options.
KEY:
Strongly Agree (SA)………… 4 points
Agree (A)……………………. 3 points
Disagree (D)………………….. 2 points
Strongly Disagree (SD)………..1 point
|
S/N
|
ITEMS
|
4
|
3
|
2
|
1
|
|
1
|
I am always eager to learn/study
Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
2
|
I do Mathematics assignment
regularly.
|
|
|
|
|
|
3
|
I perceive Mathematics as
difficult subject.
|
|
|
|
|
|
4
|
I do not make out time to study Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
5
|
I have no interest in studying/learning
Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
6
|
I pay nonchalant attitude to
Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
7
|
I find Mathematics very difficult
to learn.
|
|
|
|
|
|
8
|
I hate Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
9
|
I have negative feelings in
learning Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
10
|
I have positive feelings in learning
Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
11
|
I am never available for the
Mathematics lessons.
|
|
|
|
|
|
12
|
I devote little time to the
learning of Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
13
|
I enjoy receiving Mathematics
lesson.
|
|
|
|
|
|
14
|
I dislike Mathematics for it
demands logical reasoning.
|
|
|
|
|
|
15
|
I play Mathematics games as a
hobby.
|
|
|
|
|
|
16
|
I am always reluctant to
learn/study Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
17
|
I pass Mathematics examination.
|
|
|
|
|
|
18
|
I attend Mathematics class
always.
|
|
|
|
|
|
19
|
I devote much time to learn
Mathematics.
|
|
|
|
|
|
20
|
I always escape from mathematics
classes.
|
|
|
|
|
Appendix C: Distribution of the population
(also the Sample) for the study
|
Name of schools
|
Number of JSS 3 Mathematics
students
|
Number of JSS 3 Mathematics
teachers
|
||
|
Male
|
Female
|
Male
|
Female
|
|
|
A.S.S, Nkplogu
|
26
|
17
|
1
|
-
|
|
U.S. S, Adani
|
40
|
44
|
1
|
-
|
|
A.M.H.S, Adaba
|
15
|
24
|
-
|
1
|
|
G.S.S, Umulokpa
|
-
|
42
|
-
|
1
|
|
C.S.S, Abbi/Ugbene
|
59
|
67
|
1
|
-
|
|
C.S.S, Ukpata
|
21
|
11
|
1
|
-
|
|
C.S.S, Nimbo
|
45
|
51
|
1
|
-
|
|
C.S.S, Ogurugu
|
66
|
68
|
1
|
-
|
|
U.S.S, Uvuru
|
21
|
38
|
-
|
1
|
|
C.H.S, Nrobo
|
63
|
50
|
1
|
-
|
|
W.S.S, Opanda
|
16
|
13
|
-
|
1
|
|
C.S.S, Ugbene-Ajima
|
30
|
30
|
1
|
-
|
|
Total
|
402
|
455
|
08
|
04
|
Source: Statistics Office, Post
Primary School Management Board (PPSMB), Nsukka Education Zone, 2014/15 Session.
Appendix D: The achievement test scores (Mathematics
BECE result, 2014) of JSS 3
students
|
Names of schools
|
No of candidates
|
No with distinction
|
No with credit
|
No with pass
|
No of failure
|
Teachers’ sex
|
|
A.S.S, Nkplogu
|
43
|
8
|
34
|
-
|
1
|
M
|
|
U.S. S, Adani
|
84
|
16
|
60
|
5
|
3
|
M
|
|
A.M.H.S, Adaba
|
39
|
-
|
34
|
5
|
-
|
F
|
|
G.S.S, Umulokpa
|
42
|
-
|
30
|
11
|
1
|
F
|
|
C.S.S, Abbi/Ugbene
|
126
|
-
|
8
|
118
|
-
|
M
|
|
C.S.S, Ukpata
|
32
|
-
|
1
|
31
|
-
|
M
|
|
C.S.S, Nimbo
|
96
|
6
|
86
|
3
|
1
|
M
|
|
C.S.S, Ogurugu
|
134
|
18
|
95
|
21
|
-
|
M
|
|
U.S.S, Uvuru
|
59
|
15
|
42
|
2
|
-
|
F
|
|
C.H.S, Nrobo
|
113
|
82
|
1
|
29
|
1
|
M
|
|
W.S.S, Opanda
|
29
|
-
|
-
|
29
|
-
|
F
|
|
C.S.S, Ugbene-Ajima
|
60
|
-
|
44
|
16
|
-
|
M
|
|
Total
|
857
|
145
|
435
|
270
|
7
|
-
|
Source: Statistics/Examination
Office, Post Primary School Management Board (PPSMB), Nsukka Education Zone,
2014/15 Session.