PROJECT:CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES OF PRIMARY SCHOOL HEADS IN NSUKKA EDUCATION ZONE OF ENUGU STATE

PROJECT: CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES OF PRIMARY SCHOOL HEADS IN NSUKKA EDUCATION ZONE OF ENUGU STATE

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

          Conflict, an age long social phenomenon, is as old as mankind. Experiences world over have shown that there is no human society without conflict because citizens continually struggle over values, claims to status, power and scarce resources. In this regard, conflict can take forms including physical confrontation, disagreement and direct competition and sometimes wanton destruction of life and property. In extreme cases, conflict leads to devastation of life and property. Obi (2004) sees conflict as human and social problems which involves mutual hostility, differences, disagreement, opposition resulting to man’s inhumanity to man, use of violence, turning point or crisis which can escalate to the level of psychological warfare or physical or naked war. Conflict which is a product of interaction between or among people usually has ulterior motives. The conflicting parties or individual have peculiar interest they represent, pursue, protect or project. In other words, conflicts occur as a result of social, religious, cultural, political, professional or occupational considerations or dissimilarities in opinions, interests, social and intellectual discrimination. Conflict as it affects primary school system means misunderstanding or disagreement between or among pupils and pupils, teachers and teachers, pupils and teachers, pupils and school head, teachers and school head and school and host community. Conflicts could be triggered by examination malpractices, injustice in disciplinary issues, appropriation of school resources amongst staff and general insensitivity. All these conflict issues require strategies for their management.

          The word ‘strategy’ is derived from the Greek word ‘strategi’ which means ‘command of a general or the act of a commander-in-chief’. According to Oboegbulem (2010), the term ‘strategy’ was first used in the military to describe the grand plan for winning a war, but in recent times the term has been generally applied to business firms and other organizations including educational institutions. There is demand therefore for effective management to attain such success.

          Management is the guidance or direction of people towards the actualization of organization goals and objectives. Mgbodile (2004) defines management as the co-ordination of all resources of an organization through the process of planning, organizing, directing and controlling in order to attain organizational objectives. Peretomode (1996) sees management as the social or interaction process involving a sequence of co-ordinated events-planning, organizing, co-ordinating and controlling or leading in order to use available resources to achieve a desired outcome in the fastest and most efficient way. Also Koontz, O’Donnel and Wechrich (1980) present management as a set of activities which is primarily concerned with planning, organizing, staffing, controlling and co-coordinating. It can be inferred from the above definition that management is a social process which have goals to achieve and these goals are actualized through planning, organizing, staffing, directing, controlling and coordinating of the efforts and activities of people in an organization. In general, management is the mobilization and exploitation of human and material resources of an organization to achieve the organizational goals. It is executed through planning, organizing, staffing, controlling and coordinating. The teacher is a potential classroom or school manager.

          Chiaha (2005) defines a teacher as a person with registrable professional   qualification that enables him to be appointed to teach in any recognized educational institution and should be physically fit, have sound mind and be mentally alert. A head teacher or school head is a teacher who by virtue of his/her academic attainment, cadre or whatever is appointed by the State Universal Basic Education Board through the Local Government Education Authority to spearhead the management of a primary institution. In general, school as an education organization which is always in continuous interaction with staff (tutorial and non tutorial staff), pupils etc faces conflict challenges that require particular plans to avert these challenges so that educational objectives can be attainable.

          In primary schools, conflicts commonly occur when teachers are scrambling or struggling for a fair share of farm products from the school farm, pupils’ handicrafts, equal share of edibles during end of term/year parties or ceremonies organized by colleagues. Conflicts are also recorded when arguments ensue over administrative lapses and inconsistencies in encouraging teachers’ sense of achievement. Experience show that when a teacher records some exclusive performance in the course of discharging his/her duties, the head teacher sometimes fails to recognize or appreciate such outstanding achievement by way of awarding prices or giving incentives. This behaviour usually arouses anxiety in the teacher therefore bringing conflict precisely between the teacher and his/her boss. Conflicts occur among pupils over who becomes the class leader or which house appears victorious in founder’s day competition or between pupils and teachers over examination scores or bullying and general disobedience amongst school children to teachers. Conflict could also occur between schools and the host community over school land boundary or failure of one in achieving its duties and responsibilities which have reciprocal interdependence, and so on and so forth. All these conflicts need to be amicable resolved or managed well in order to develop, achieve and sustain the stated goals of the organization. Hence, Marx in Enyi (2001) posited that unrestrained conflicts as currently experience in many organizations are becoming so dysfunctional that they tend to be destroying the organizations themselves. Also Fadipe (2000) affirmed that conflict within school organization leads to disruptions and therefore impedes the attainment of educational goals. Thus these challenges need appropriate management.

          Conflict management entails the process by which certain strategies are introduced and utilized in an organization to control conflict and its distractions. These processes are handling disagreement in opinion, seeking ways of avoiding or terminating violence between people, controlling discord in opinion due to human interaction. Onwura (2010) observed that conflict management requires skills which are emotionally based and reflect self esteem and flexibility on the part of administrators. Conflict management or resolution requires intelligent and dispassionate troubleshooter totally endowed with natural wit and charisma that will enable him/her cope with the demands of conflict management.       

          Conflict management strategies are skills that can be administered to control conflict in a conflict situation. Ting-Toomey, Oetzel and Yee-Jung (2001) define conflict management strategies as general tendencies or mode of patterned responses to conflict in a variety of antagonistic interactive situations. Putnam (1988) views conflict management strategies as choice, intention or plan of action based on a person’s goal and his or her analysis of the situation. Rahim (1983) identified five major conflict management strategies. They are: Integrating, Obliging, Dominating, Avoiding and Compromising.

Integrating:  A person who uses Integrating to manage conflict has a high concern for self and a high concern for others. This style focuses on effectively dealing with conflict in a collaborative way. It is merely involving openness, exploiting alternatives and exchanging differences to resolve the conflict.    

Obliging: The Obliging style of conflict management has a low concern for self and high concern for others. This means one party essentially gives in or succumbing to the other in order to resolve the conflict. It is associated with attempting to ameliorate the differences and highlight the common ground to satisfy the concern of the other party.

Dominating: This strategy has a high for self and a low concern for others. It entails a person considering his/her interests and disregarding the other party. He arrogantly assumes that there is no conflict situation, yet there is. Here, one party goes all out to win his/her objectives and as a result often ignores the needs of the other party.

Avoiding: This involves a low concern for self and a low concern for others. This method does not allow for a well-resolved conflict because a person who used the avoiding method disregards the conflict by being evasive (Gross & Guerrero, 2001). Avoiding strategy means a party failing to satisfy his/her own concern as well as the concern of the other party.

Compromising: This strategy has intermediate levels of concern for both self and others. Compromising as a conflict management strategy represents a middle ground; the individual is focused on his or her goals and the goals of the other party. The parties involved sacrifice some areas of their interest in order to allow peace reign.

          The major causes of conflicts in the primary schools in Nsukka Education zone are numerous and varied to include: Differences in status of people; role  allocation; inadequate physical facilities and equipment; inadequate evaluation mechanism; differences in performance criteria and reward system; role dissatisfaction; disagreement over goal; denial of teachers/pupils voice in decision making; difference in personal traits, background, values, and perceptions of people; poor communication skills; style of management and incompetence; poor attitude to work; the use of generation gap; anti-authority and prejudice.

          These inadvertently ignite quarrels, misunderstanding and consequently fighting in the schools. This means that some considerable time and meager resources allocated to education for the period which should have been utilized for the achievement of the objectives of the organization are now wasted to disputation. Song, Dyer and Thieme (2006) opined that conflict is a frequent occurrence in the workplace and consumes up to 20% of employees’ time. In the light of these, the researcher deemed it necessary to explore and investigate the appropriate conflict management strategies that are utilized by primary school head and teachers in the management of conflicts in primary schools in Nsukka Education zone.

 

 

 

Statement of the Problem

          There had been reported cases of misunderstanding and disharmony amongst teachers  in primary schools in Nsukka Education zone caused by poor attitude to work; differences in personal traits, background, values and perceptions of people, poor communication skills; style of management and incompetence, denial of teacher/pupils participation during decision; role dissatisfaction; disagreement over goals; differences in performance and  reward system; role allocation; inadequate physical facilities and equipment; inadequate evaluation mechanism and differences in status of people. All these trigger conflicts which impeded academic activities in primary schools in the area. The bizarre effects of conflict range from breakdown of communication and social cooperation, disruption of academic activities to instability, anarchy, chaos, rancor, acrimony, aggression, suspicion and superstition, emotional accusation and sometime litigation. Following these unacceptable situations, the present study attempts to explore the conflict management strategies utilized by school heads and teachers in conflict situations in primary schools in Nsukka Education zone. Therefore, the problem of the study posed as a question is: What are the conflict management strategies use by school heads and teachers in the management of conflicts in primary schools in Nsukka Education zone?

 

 

Purpose of the Study

          The main purpose of this is to investigate the utilization of the conflict management strategies by school heads for conflict management in primary schools in Nsukka zone.

Specifically, the study seeks to:

i.                   Identify conflict management strategies use by school heads to manage conflicts between the school heads and teachers.

ii.                 Identify conflict management strategies used by school heads to manage conflicts between teachers and pupils.

iii.              Ascertain the conflict management strategies used by school heads to manage conflicts between school heads and pupils.

iv.              Identify the conflict management strategies employed by school heads to manage conflicts amongst teachers.

v.                 Ascertain the conflict management strategies use by school heads to manage pupil related conflicts.

vi.              Identify the conflict management strategies utilized by school heads to manage conflicts between school and host community.

Significance of the Study

Dechurch and Marks (2001) established what they claimed was a ‘meta-taxonomy’ that encompasses all other models of conflict management into two dimensions – Activeness and Agreeableness. Activeness is the extent to which conflict behaviours make a responsive and direct impression rather than inert and indirect one while Agreeableness make a pleasant and relaxed impression rather than unpleasant and strainful impact. In other words, they perceive conflict behaviour as having both open and closed expressions and tendencies that require passionate approach. Irrespective of the disorganizing nature of conflict in organization, there is tendency for agreement afterward when approached with the befitting management skills. This agreement (understanding) when achieved generates peace, harmony and progress in the organization.

          This study will benefit the Ministry of Education and the government, the community, the pupils, the teachers, the school head and further researches.

          The findings of the study will benefit the ministry of Education and the government in general in the sense that the areas that generate conflicts in educational institutions will be unraveled and the appropriate management strategies for averting these conflicts in the system outlined. This will pave way for conducive environment for effective teaching and learning in the system and the consequent realization of educational objectives.

          The community will benefit from the findings of this study because if the school runs smoothly, the set goals and aspirations will be achieved. This situation will make it possible for the production of individuals who are worthy in both character and learning and so be useful to the community and fit in the society in general. The community will de-emphasize conflicting with the school since they have been educated on the negative effects of conflicts in the affairs of man.

          Pupils will also benefit from the findings of the study as little or no time slated for academic activities shall be wasted because of conflict. Since no energy is decipated as a result of conflict, teachers will be committed to their work for the primary benefits of the pupils.

          The school heads will benefit from the findings of the study as the causes of conflicts in primary schools shall be discussed. They shall avail themselves the need for allocation of job and scarce resources of the school without prejudice, this proper allocation is of course a conflict management skill. This will keep the schools in sound footing for effective teaching and learning.

          The findings of the study will be beneficial to the teachers since a well managed conflict situation ameliorates teachers stress. This reduction in teachers’ stress and strain enhances job performance and satisfaction.

          The findings of the study will benefit students’ researchers as they can lay hand on the work and source for the required information/material for further researches.

 

Scope of the Study

          The study is to be carried out at Nsukka Education zone, Enugu state, Nigeria. Nsukka Education zone comprises three Local Government Areas – Igbo Etiti, Nsukka and Uzo-Uwani.

          The content scope covered conflict management strategies of school heads in management of conflicts between school heads and teachers, between teachers and pupils, between school heads and pupils, conflicts amongst teachers, amongst pupils and between head and host community in primary schools in the zone.

Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

1.                 What are the conflict management strategies used by school heads to manage conflicts between school heads and teachers?

2.                 What are the conflict management strategies use by school heads to manage conflicts existing between teachers and pupils?

3.                 What are the conflict management strategies used by school heads to manage conflicts between school heads and pupils?

4.                 What are the conflict management strategies employed by school heads to manage conflicts existing amongst teachers?

5.                 What are the conflict management strategies used by school heads to manage pupils related conflicts?

6.                 What are the conflict management strategies used by school heads to manage conflicts between school and host community?

 

Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses have been formulated to guide the study. Each will be tested at 0.05 level of significance.

HO1: There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of school heads and teachers on the use of conflict management strategies to manage conflicts between school heads and teachers.

HO2: There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of school heads and teachers on the use of conflict management strategies to manage conflicts existing between teachers and pupils.

HO3: The mean ratings of school heads and teachers on the use of conflict management strategies to manage conflicts between school and the host community will not differ significantly

 

 

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The review of related literature is discussed under four sections broken into five sub-sections.

v    Conceptual Framework

-      Concept of conflict

-      Concept of management

-      Concept of conflict management strategies

v    Theoretical Framework

Theoretical of Conflict

-      Khun and Pool’s Model

-      DeChuch and Marks Meta-Taxonomy Model

v    Review of Empirical Studies

v    Summary of Literature Review

 

Conceptual Framework

Concept of Conflict

This sub-section shall elucidate the contextual and functional meanings of conflict and give the definitions and explanations of conflict as were given by experts.

The word “conflict” originated from the Latin word ‘conflictus’ meaning ‘striking together’. They are inevitable in all organizations including educational institutions. Conflict is therefore a social problem due to dissimilarities in human needs, needs disposition, backgrounds and temperature. According to Onwura (2010), conflict is a product of interaction between or among people. It implies disagreement in opinion, opposition of interests due to individual differences and characteristics. Conflict arises where there is competition between or among individuals either tangible or intangible. Akinwonmi (2005) defined conflict as a disagreement or incompatibility between two or more parts which sometimes are characterized by hostility and avoidance. Conflicts are common occurrences in life. Fiske (1990) saw conflict as an incompatibility of goals or values between two or more parties in a relationship combined with attempts to control each other. The incompatibility or difference may exit in reality or may only be perceived by the parties involved.

Conflict, if not checked in its developmental stages, may graduate to crisis, hatred, violence, escalating to fighting, emotional accusation and litigation. These consequential actions will consume most of the time and resources of the organization thereby dwarfing the organization’s productivity level. In that regard, Song et al (2006) opined that conflict is a frequent occurrence in the workplace. In fact in an organizational setting, conflict consumes up to 20 percent of employees time. Friedman, Tidd, Curral and Tsai (2000) observed that conflict occurs through the communication of a variety of issues including differences of opinion, procedural problems and disagreement over approaches to work oriented tasks.

The handling of conflict requires awareness of its various developmental stages. If administrators in the situation can identify the conflict issues and how far it has developed, they can sometimes solve it before it becomes much more serious. Algert (1996) therefore identified four stages of conflict development as follow:

Where potential for conflict exists: This occurs where people recognize that lack of resources, diversity of language or culture may possibly result in conflict.

Latent conflict: This is when competitive situation could easily spill over into conflict; that is the workplace where there are obvious differences among groups of people.

Open conflict: This is usually triggered by an incident and suddenly becomes real conflict.

Aftermath conflict: The situation where a particular problem may have been resolved but the potential for conflict still exists. In fact, the potential may be given greater than before if one person or group perceives itself as being involved in a win or loose situation. According to Algert (1996), organization leaders and members should be alert to signs of conflict between colleagues so that they can be proactive in reducing or resolving the conflict by getting to the root of the issue. He identified typical signs of conflict between individuals to include:

Colleagues not speaking to each other or ignoring each other, contradicting and bad-mouthing one another. In other words individuals begin to use inflammatory and hate statements against each other, confrontational remarks and defamation, and deliberately undermining or not cooperating with each other to the downfall of the team. Similarly, signs of conflict between groups of people include: cliques or factions meeting to discuss issues separately when they affect the whole organization; one group being left out in organizing an event which should include everybody; groups using threatening slogans or symbols to show that their group is right and the others are wrong.

          Effective conflict management is perhaps the most basic requirement for faster organizational development and growth. Brewer, Mitchell and Weber (2002) added that conflict is a frequent occurrence in the workplace and conflict management skills are necessary for individuals to function effectively at each and every level in an organization. Gross and Guerrero (2000) affirmed that in an organizational setting, when an individual is able to manage conflict effectively, they are better apt to communicate and lead, thus understanding that conflict in organization is essential. The prevalence of conflict has various negative implications for organization especially educational institutions. Mayer (2004) opined that conflicts have the potential to deteriorate organization functioning by inducing resignations, absenteeism, accident as well as debilitating individual health and wellbeing.

          Organizational conflict can be conceptualized as an interactive process manifested in incompatibility, disagreement or dissonance within or between social entities (i.e. individuals, groups, organizations etc). Conflict can relate to incompatible preferences, goals and not just activities. Conflicts have been viewed as impediments to organizational function.

          However, some scholars view conflict as a source of innovation, creativity and development in organization. Ruben (1978) suggested that conflicts are vital for modern organizations; they are not only essential to the growth, change and evolution of living systems, but are as well as system’s primary defense against stagnation, detachment, entropy and eventual extinction. Similarly Aula (2000) argues that conflict is an important force in bringing out the difference among agent’s opinions, logics and worldviews which in turn leads to more creative and novel outcomes.

          The foregoing definitions and explanations of conflict suggest that the general effects of conflict could be advantageous or disadvantageous to organizations. Obviously conflict is a part of human consciousness in all aspects of life. One cannot avoid conflict whether at home, on the road at the workplace or in organizations. Conflict which has been viewed as impediment to organizational functioning poses severe operational challenges to educational institutions especially primary schools, and needed to be carefully managed. This is to enable the system survive, grow, develop and reflect to the contemporary educational realities in Nigeria.

 

Concept of Management

          This sub-section shall give the various definitions and explanations of management, elements of management and principles of management as were given by experts.

          Nwachukwu (1988) defines management as the co-ordination of all the resources of an organization through the process of planning, organizing, directing and controlling in order to attain organizational objectives. Also, Akubue (1991) is of the view that management is a method where a group of people at the highest level of organization plan, organize, communicate, co-ordinate, control and direct the actions and activities of people who work for the organization toward the achievement of the organizational objectives. Management involves the effective organization and utilization of the human and material resources in a given system to that the aims and objectives of the system are achieved. It involves the exploitation, exploration and mobilization of material factors and human potentials for the attainment of organizational goals. Nwachukwu (1988) defines management as ‘getting things done through others’. Explicitly, the management achieves the stated goals (i.e. things done) through the organizational activities of the employees (i.e. through others).

          Peretomode (1991) in Mgbodile (2004) succinctly defined management as the social or interactional process involving sequence of coordinated events-planning, organizing, co-ordinating and controlling or leading in order to use available resources to achieve a desired outcome in the fastest management that an organization or institution can plan, organize, staff, control, direct and co-ordinate its activities to achieve pre-determined goals.

          From the foregoing, it can be deduced that management involves human beings interacting in a given system, these interactions have specifically defines goals to achieve (i.e. purposeful interaction), these goals are achieved through the utilization of human and material resources of the organization, the interaction and use of resources shall be co-ordinated in a manner that will bring about the achievement of the organizational goals.

          Educational management, according to Peretomode (1986) in Oboegbulem (2010) is concerned with the planning and formulation of educational policies or programmes with a view to achieving educational goals. He states that ‘educational management is the application of the process of planning, organizing, c0-ordinating, controlling and evaluating human and material resources’.

          Henry Fayol (1841 - 1925), one of the earliest writers on management sees management as consisting of five basic processes or elements: - Planning, organizing, commanding, co-ordinating and controlling. Gurlick and Urwick identified seven elements as the constituents of management. These elements have been acceptable as very vital in organizational management. They are: Planning, Organising, Staffing, Directing, Co-ordinating, Reporting and Budgeting.

Planning: This is at the initial stage of management. It involves working out in broad and clear outlines the things that need to be done, where to do it, who is to do it and how.

Organizing: This refers to the formal structure of authority through which work sub-divisions are arranged, defined and co-ordinated for a stated objectives.

Staffing: This is the process of officially advertising positions for applications, conducting transparent interview and recruiting staff in the organization. It also involves providing conducive and comfortable milieu for workers in the organization.

Directing: It involves continuous task of making decisions, giving specific and non-autocratic order and instruction yet serving as leader of the establishment.

Co-ordinating: This is the ability to interrelate and harness various functions ensuring efficient and effective job performance.

Reporting: This involves communication which is the process of sharing and exchanging ideas, fillings, information and thought. Individuals in the establishment need to be informed about what is going on through effective communication, records, research and inspection. Communication in organization should be handled with utmost care and caution because what is already said is irreversible. Onwurah (2010) pointed out that what is said in communication cannot be unsaid. There should be proper information dissemination about any sensitive issue in the organization.

Budgeting: This involves fiscal planning, proper accounting and control; everything involves income, expenditure and revenue allocation.

          Every organization is based on certain general principles which are necessary for the attainment of its goals. Henry Fayol in 1916 published fourteen principles of management. They are:

·        Division of Labour and Work – This means breaking down into parts and individuals are to work on only limited number of parts according to specialization.

·        Parity of Authority and Responsibilty: This is the relatedness of authority and responsibility and every responsibility must be backed with authority.

·        Discipline- Authority and employees should interact in peace and harmony by observing obedience to rules and regulations.

·        Unity of command – Subordinates in the establishment should know who is responsible to who or who takes order from who.

·        Unity of Direction – This rules states that each group of activities having the same objective must have one head and one plan.

·        Surbordination of Individual Interest to General Interest – This means that on no account should the interest of one individual or group prevail over those of the organization.

·        Remuneration of Personnel According to Effort – Payment of salaries and allowances should be fair and just. Sense of achievement should be rewarded and motivated.

·        Centralization of Authority – There should be good balance between centralization and decentralization of authority and power in the organization.

·        Chain of Command - There should be super-ordinate and subordinate relationship such that authority flows from the highest rank to the lowest one.

·        Order in Organization – This principle holds that thing should be in the right places. In other words, square pegs should not be put in round holes.

·        Equity, Justice and Kindness – Loyalty, devotion and commitment can only be elicited from subordinates if and only if they are loved, shown kindness and there is exercise of justice in the organization.

·        Stability of Job and Tenure – Casualisation of employees should be discouraged to ensure stability and commitment of the employees.

·        Initiative: According to Fayol, intiative means thinking something out and executing the plan. Think-outs by employees therefore should be encouraged. Workers should be encouraged to exercise their initiatives.

·        Esprit de corps – This principle preaches teamwork, team spirit, togetherness, and unity of command. It believes in the saying that unity is strength.

Concept of Conflict Management Strategies

The main purpose of this sub-section is to outline and explain the modern management strategies as identified by some modern social scientists and educators.

According to Ting-Toomey et al (2001), conflict management strategies are general tendencies or modes of patterned responses to conflict in a variety of antagonistic interactive situations. Putman (1988) views conflict management strategies as a choice, intention or plan of action based on a person’s goal and his or her analysis of the situation. This definition by Putman was conceptualizing conflict management strategies as the preferred choice of handling a conflict based on the parties involved in the conflict. Conflict is often times managed differently according to the parties involved and the context surrounding the conflict.

Conflict management strategies are not conflict resolution. Conflict management strategies involve implementing skills to limit the negative aspects of conflict and to increase the positive aspects of conflict at a level equal to or higher than where the conflict is taking place. Furthermore, the aim of conflict management is to enhance learning and group outcomes (i.e. effectiveness or performance in organizational setting). However, conflict management is not targeted at eliminating all conflicts or avoiding them. Conflict can be valuable to groups and organizations when managed properly. Conflict resolution, as the name would suggest, involves the reduction, elimination or termination of all forms and types of conflict. In practice, it involves negotiation, bargaining, mediation or arbitration. Conflict management does not necessarily imply conflict resolution. According to Rahim (2002) conflict management involves designing effective macro-level strategies (framework) to minimize the dysfunctions of conflict and enhancing the constructive functions of conflict in order to enhance learning and effectiveness in an organization.

Conflict management strategies are patterned responses introduced to conflict situation to control the conflict. However, there are aspects of conflict resolution in conflict management. Management of conflict requires acquiring skills related to conflict resolution, self-awareness about conflict modes, conflict communication skills, and establishing a structure for management of conflict situation. Conflict management is the ability to deal with everyday situations which include personal interaction involving differences in opinion, interest etc. it is the process of removing tension and quarrelsome situations for the purposes of agreement, harmony and understanding. It is only when the organizational climate or environment is serene, friendly, conducive and comfortable that workers become happy and give their best performance in the organization. This means all the employees participating effectively for the realization of the organizational goals. Unfortunately, employees resort to quarrel, gossiping, fighting and general apathy therefore abandoning the pursuit of the institutions goals and objectives. These are generated by conflict. Co-operation is more stable, effective and vigorous in organization when it is stripped of conflict.

Rahim (2002) identified five conflict management strategies. They are: Integrating, Obliging, Dominating, Avoiding and Compromising.

Integrating: A person who uses integrating to manage conflict has a high concern for self and a high concern for others. This style focuses on effectively dealing with conflict in a collaborative way. Integrating involves openness, exchanging information, looking for alternatives and exchanging differences to solve the problem in a manner that is acceptable to both parties. Integrating strategy is appropriate when issue are complex; synthesis of ideas is needed to come up with better solutions; commitment is needed from other parties for successful implementation; time is available for problem solving; one party alone cannot solve their common problems. Application of this strategy is inappropriate where task or problem is simple; immediate decision is required; other parties are unconcerned about outcome; other parties do not have problem solving skills.

Obliging: The Obliging style of conflict management has a low concern for self and high concern for others. This means one party essentially gives in or succumbing to the other in order to resolve the conflict. Obliging is associated with attempting to minimize the differences and highlight the commonalities to satisfy the concern of the other party. Obliging strategy is appropriate when you believe that you may be wrong; issue is more important to the other party; you are willing to give up something in exchange for something from the other party in the future; you are dealing /operating from a position of weakness; preserving relationship is important. However, this strategy is not utilized when the issue is important to you; you believe that you are right; the other party is wrong is wrong or unethical.

Dominating: This strategy has a high concern for self and a low concern for others. It entails a person considering his/her interests and disregarding the other party. He arrogantly assumes that there is no conflict situation, yet there is. Dominating involves one party goes all out to win his/her objectives and as a result often ignores the needs and expectations of the other party. Situations when dominating strategy is used include: when the issue is trivial; speedy decision is needed; unpopular course of action is implemented; necessary to overcome assertive subordinates; unfavourable decision by the other party may be costly to you subordinates lack expertise to make technical decisions issue is important to you; it is not applied when issue is complex issue is not important to you; both parties are equally powerful; decision does not have to be made quickly; subordinates posses high degree of competence.

Avoiding:  This involves a low concern for self and a low concern for others.  This method does not allow for a well-resolved conflict because a person who uses the avoiding method disregards the conflict by being evasive (Gross & Guerrero. 2001).  When avoiding, a party fails to satisfy his or her own concern as well as the concern of the other party.  Application of avoiding strategy is suitable when the issue is trivial; potential dysfunctional effect of confronting the other party outweighs benefits of resolution; cooling period is needed.  However, it is not used when the issue is important to you; it is your responsibility to make decision; parties are unwilling to defer, issue must be resolved; prompt attention is needed.

Compromising:  This strategy has intermediate levels of concern for both self and others.  Compromising as a conflict management strategy represents a middle ground; the individual is focused on his or her goals and the goals of the other party.  Compromising involves give-and-take whereby both parties give up something to make a mutually acceptable decision.  Compromising strategy is appropriate when goals of parties are mutually exclusive; parties are equally powerful; consensus cannot be reached integrating or dominating style is not successful; temporary solution to a complex problem is needed. Conflict situations when the utilization of this strategy is inappropriate include: one party is more powerful; problem is complex enough needing problem solving approach,

 

The Dual Concern model of the styles of handling interpersonal conflict.

CONCERN FOR SELF

 

                              HIGH                                   LOW

                    Integrating                                                  Obliging

 

                                                 Compromising

            Dominating                                             Avoiding

                                                                                                                                                            

Source: Rahim (2002:208)

 

Also, in order to cope with the dynamic institutional circumstances, Aula (1999) identified four strategies that organization’s conflict management strategies should acknowledge. They ar: Consolidating, Suppressing, Shaking and Engaging which empty into strategies given by Aula.

Consolidating: This strategy is ideal when the conflict issues is impersonal and simple in nature and can be resolved in an institutional arena. Here, conflicting opinions are expected to surface only rarely, and when they do, they are clear in focus, integrative in nature and predictable in outcome. Thus, the system solves them routinely and predictable in outcome. Thus, the system solves them routinely and mechanically. Consolidating requires participants to surrender control of an issue readily to a neutral authority and continue the working relationship as it was prior to the encounter.

Consolidating is normally considered a desirable strategy because people often experience change as uncomfortable, moreover, people have limited skills and limited opportunity to manage conflict.

Suppressing: Suppressing represents the undesirable, yet common reality of organizational conflict management. It emerges when a conflict issue is complex and personal in nature. Here, organization tries to adhere to the prevailing conflict management structures and conventions that do not allow for elaborate opinions or discussions. Communication is kept formal by the organization; however, conflict participants do not consider the available channels to be sufficient to address their concerns. The conflict is complex in nature, yet the conditions only support handling of clear-cut issues and traditional problem solving. Here, conflict is likely to posses a strong effective dimension which one prefers to stifle so that it does not lead to dysfunctional or non-productive outcomes. Ignorance of certain parts often the personal and salient parts of a conflict easily leads to unexpected and unwanted actions such as recrimination, escalation and frustration. In suppressing, attention is drawn away from the real problem to its superficial aspects and from the actual participants to outside experts.

Shaking: Shaking represents a proactive move in conflict management whereby an organization utilizes dissipative communication and informal communication channels in dealing with a conflict. Shaking indicts the handling of a somewhat straight forward and factual issue in a spontaneous arena. Such  a situation occurs when the organization is destined to bury itself wholeheartedly in problems. Shaking may also be used to promote a commitment to handling conflicts in a though manner. At best, shaking allows for and utilizes dissipative communication to manage conflicts comprehensively and humanely and so encourage all opinions to surface. However, shaking may become problematic if what is essentially a factual issue is pointlessly complicated.

Engaging: Engaging represents a situation in which a conflict is aptly and carefully explored. In other words, the conflict is engaged in a spontaneous arena to match a complex and highly personal issue. Engaging can work to an organization’s benefit if it awakens the introduction of fresh ideas and viewpoints. On the other hand, engaging may not be a desirable strategy because the real issues are likely to be clouded even further and thus, relationships may become jeopardized. Sometimes, engaging occurs because of communicative inabilities on one or both sides.

          On a general perspective, no one strategy is the best in conflict management. Organizational conflict management should therefore employ virtually all the strategies to ease conflict conditions. Conflict management strategies (CMS) offer a constricted array of arenas which do not aim at challenging the existing meaning structure and consequently lead to institutional learning.

          In this school system, the causes of conflict are numerous and varied. This is because individuals (organizational members) who differ in background, human needs, interest, conceptions and temperance are in continuous communication and social interactions. Thus, Bush and Folger (2005) opined that social interactions itself is a negative force and this is so because human beings are incapable of engaging in either social interaction or conflict without destructive consequences. Onwura (2010) observed that the causes of conflict are inexhaustible due to varied human needs, interests and motives. The following are some of them grouped into two namely: structural based conflict and behavioural/personal based conflict.

          Structural Based Conflict: This is the disagreement which stems from the way an organization is designed in terms of size, character, and nature of the environment. The effective management of an organization is mostly dependent on the way the organizational structure is arranged and the functionability of such arrangement. A well arranged organizational structure makes communication flow easy and simple. Conversely, poor arrangement is a potential for abysmal performance and in extreme case, entropy. Thus, Obi (2004) opined that the principal function of the organizational structure is to facilitate the desired decisions and actions and to exclude undesired decisions and actions.

According to Onwura (2010), such structural sources of organizational conflicts include: task/work interdependence, differences in status, inadequate facilities and equipment, inadequate evaluation mechanism, differences in performance and reward system, disagreement over goals, role dissatisfaction and denial of teachers’/students’ voice in decision-making.

          Task/Work Independence: In the school system, tasks are assigned according to specialization and professionalism. Work interdependence exists when two or more sub-units depend on each other to complete their respective assignments. Conflict is likely to occur in a situation where a unit fails to complete its own task and from which another assignment for another unit begins. For example, the game master is already in the field of play to engage pupils in sports and games whereas another teacher is busy conduction class assessment for his/her class at the same time. This will breed conflict, because the class at the same time. This will breed conflict, because the class teacher is supposed to release his/her pupils for the sports practice. Also there may be clashes arising from the use of computer room. There are three types of task interdependence: pooled interdependence, sequential interdependence and reciprocal interdependence.

          Pooled Interdependence: This requires no task interaction amongst the units/teachers concerned. Each unit caries out its functions independently. At the end, all are referred at the centre for decision taking. In primary school, the task of collection and sale of handicrafts are in the hands of respective class teachers. Now at the end of the period under review, all the class teachers are summoned by the head teacher to give accounts of the collections. There is potential for conflict if a teacher had misappropriated or embezzled the proceeds he/she realized.

          Sequential Interdependence: Here, performance of one task depends of the completion of another. A typical example of this is in post-primary schools where each subject teacher enters the scores of his/her subject. This task precedes the computing, signing and issuing of the results to students. Conflict results when the form teacher gets ready to give his/her students only to discover that some scores have not be entered. Records show that several teachers have clashed over this type of situation.

          Reciprocal Independence: This is the admixture of the consequences of pooled interdependence and sequential interdependence. It is a complex relationship which demands a lot of interaction amongst individuals or units. When functions are interdependent with one another, conflict will always occur because the delay in accomplishing one task will automatically lead to unwarranted delay in starting the other.

          Difference in Status: Status in this context means ones position or rank in organization. Organizational structure provides for some positions to be above and superior to some others. Such positions spontaneously have some power and authority vested in them in the organization more than others. Now human beings by nature are not always comfortable with those who gives about their affairs. Thus Rahim (1983) affirmed that when communicating with superiors, subordinates will often say what they feel to be acceptable but not necessarily true. In other words, people in low status (subordinates units) may not always recognize the importance and hence the contributions of the higher status units. This leads to conflict. In primary schools, teachers in lower status are always in open war of words with some assistant school heads.

          Role Allocation: This is also called Jurisdiction Ambiguity. Unclearly stated, separated and differentiated roles bring about friction and collision in organization. When roles are clearly undefined, workers can hardly know their rights, privileges and obligations in the organization. In primary schools, there may be an overlap of the functions of the school prefect and his/her assistant. Also, there is a situation where labour master quarrels with agriculture master because of an overlap of their functions.

          Inadequate Physical Facilities and Equipment: Physical facilities and equipment include classrooms, examination halls, laboratories, libraries, instructional material, computer sets, science equipment, electricity, pipe born water etc. inadequate supply of amenities leads to competition for them and students react violently to their scarcity especially in the tertiary institutions. Thus Ogonnaya (2009) posited that inadequate hostel accommodation, unsatisfactory supply of food and catering services, overcrowded lecture halls and hostel; lack of financial aid, poor sanitary conditions tend to make students campus life and experience a very traumatic one. At the primary level of education, death of classroom space, instructional materials and good milieu make pupils learn in stress and tears. These may lead to conflict, and of course crisis.

          Inadequate Evaluation Mechanism: Evaluation mechanism means criteria put in place for assessment for organizational positions of authority etc. conflict is ignited when evaluation materials are inadequate or abused by using them to favour others. Consequently, those favoured may beging to look down on others which may precipitate conflict. Example, in some schools, some teachers are appointed to head their superiors because of politics. The type of conflict that ensues as a result of this is shockingly high and protracted.

          Differences in Performance Criteria and Reward System: Rewards are elicited by outstanding performance. Now, any dissimilar reward for similar performance creates potential for conflict. Primary school teachers often quarrel over the continuous appointment of a particular teacher to man a particular function. It is even negatively interpreted that other teachers are never-do-wells, therefore denying them a sense of belonging.

           Role Dissatisfaction: This is the negative feelings teachers have within themselves for not being accorded respect and recognition they deserve from the school authority. This may make them work against the administration. Thus Onwurah in Mgbodile (2004) affirmed that lack of appreciation of the opinions and contributions of staff makes them indulge in sabotage operations in the school.

          Disagreement over goals: Normally, organizations are established to achieve some goals, known as organizational goals. However a situation may arise when some individuals or units resort to achieving their selfish goals that are dissimilar to the goals of the organization. Thus may bring conflict. Examples, one of the fundamental goals of educational institutions is to propagate real academic environment devoid of cheating in examinations. But unfortunately school heads, because of greed, manipulate this to selfishly and corruptly enrich themselves. Some criminal mined school heads do sell some school plant facilities in their custodial care just to make money. Some will even collaborate with hoodlums to loot the facilities after which they get their own share of the proceeds. These acts do jeopardize the organizational interest and therefore cause conflict. Obi (2004) opined that when departments or sub-units tend to specialized or differentiates as they develop dissimilar goals and tasks, such differentiation frequently lead to conflict of interest or priorities even when the overall organizational goals are clear.

          Denial of Teachers’/Students’ Voice in Decision-Making: Odigbo (1999) in Mgbodile (2004) stated that the rise in teachers and students’ militancy was partly attributed to the desires of the growing number of teachers and students to be more actively involved in the decision-making, they may either loose interest in the issue or attempt to sabotage the operation. In organizations, members are apt to protect and project the decision they took part in formulating. In other words, participating in decision making often compels teachers and even pupils to help out in implementing these decisions. It is generally believed that people are more prepared to work for decisions they have taken part in than those alien to them (Onwurah, 2010).

          The Behavioural/Personal Based Conflict is attributed to the personal behaviour of the individual as they relate to themselves. It includes differences in personal traits, values, differences in background, perceptions, poor communication skills, style of management, incompetence, poor attitude to work, issues of generational gap, anti-authority and prejudice.

          Differences in Personal Traits: Human nature differs in many considerations as we cut across individuals. Some are simple and friendly, some are aggressive and hostile while some others are by nature autocratic, avaricious and deceptive. All these attributes have influence on the possessor’s behaviour and perceptions. Peoples’ personality disposition, role satisfaction, role status and differing perceptions are some human factors that can promote conflict. Consequently, those who are dictatorial or who have low esteem are prone to distorting reality. They are unable to understand the behaviour of others and so set the stage for conflict (Obi, 2004). The hostile and those who overact to provocations are more harmful and find themselves in conflict more frequently with others than those without these traits.

          Differences in the Background of People:  Normally, organizational members are people who come from different backgrounds. These backgrounds include age, educational attainment, ethnic group, social status, cultural orientation, religious inclinations etc. These individuals with these various differences are in continuous organizational communication and task interaction, and these predispose them to conflict with one another.

          Differences in Values: Value in this context means what people in the organization revere. For example, pupils may value high performance in examination through hard work while the teachers may value high performance through cheating. Here, there is a clash of interest which breeds conflict. In another direction, the school head may de-emphasize bullying by school functionaries but they may reject the order because they already value the use of canes. There is also a clash of interest which precipitates conflict.

          Differences in Perceptions: How people see and understand situations or things constitute their perception. Institutional members who come from different backgrounds, who have differing individual goals and of dissimilar statues shall never see or understand thing or situations in the same way. Examples, a pupil may break the school rule by abusing a teacher but unfortunately, other teachers will understand and interpret the pupil’s act differently. This breeds conflict amongst the teachers.

          Poor Communication Skills: Communication is the life blood of any organization. If used promptly, it enhances prompt sensing of internal strength. Conversely, ambiguity in communication lines intensifies conflict. This hinders co-ordination and loyalty of staff in the school. Information that is limited, obscure and a misrepresentation of what it intended to portray known in educational administration as information kwashiorkor creates potentials for conflict. Thus, Fisher (2002) affirmed the lack of skill in communicating what we mean in a clear and respectful fashion often results in confusion, hurt and anger, all of which feed the conflict process. A school head who is secretive and hoards information will always run a suspicious government. The academic environment will be bereft of suspicion, treat, avoidance, disobedience and disinterests, thereby creating potentials for conflict which may graduate to crisis as the case may be. In educational institution, absence of required information by the management leads to substitute communication which develops in the form of rumour, gossip and outright falsehood.

          In as much as we are advocating for adequate and required information in educational institution, care should be taken so that there will be no information overload known as information diarrhea. This is characterized by excess of information input in the organization, which may also breed conflict. Thus, information from the subordinate to the superior (i.e. Report) and those from the superior to the subordinate (i.e. Directing) should be adjusted to the capacity of the institution so as to avoid conflict.

          Style of Management: Style in this context simply refers to a set of method or behavioral approach adopted by a leader in his effort to manipulate the three important correlates of administration: the men, the job and the materials towards goal achievement (Mgbodile 2004). It is important to realize that the aggregate results achieved in the pursuit of school objectives is to a large extent dependent on the management styles adopted by the administrators. Many organizational leaders adopt management styles which engender cooperation of staff, motive their staff, enhance work performance and productivity and stimulate other positive results that generally help move the establishment forward. However, others engage in styles which stifle initiative and creativity; that reduced the level of staff co-operation and involvement, that breed unhappiness, stress and tension among staff or that set the institution into opposing camps – the pro and the anti administration camps. That is the characteristic features of government that is autocratic and authoritarian. According to Onwurah (2010) the style of leadership adopted by an administrator is a common generator of conflict. A school administrator who is work centred and authoritarian may encourage limited communication and development of rumour and gossips. These attributes, if not checked, may precipitate conflict.

          Incompetence: Incompetence means total absence in an administrator of those skills required to propagate an organization to fruition. This has also to do with lack of knowledge of the job at hand. This is because many assumed leadership positions more or less by virtue of year of graduation and teaching experience, or even through politics. Mgbodile (2004) maintained that the traffic situation in Nigerian schools today is such that many school administrators do not have adequate background training in educational administration. This type of leadership is characterized by arrogance, cliques, gangs, gossips and threats. In the teacher’s consideration, it is a well known fact that many teachers do not know their subjects very well. Many of them do fumble and degenerate in the classroom when trying to teach some concepts. Some do quarrel with students/pupils who ask some intelligent and probing questions. Some teachers use to adopt suppression mechanism by flogging students that ask questions. Some students as a matter of fact get disgusted with such teachers and often go on demonstrating in protest. All these breed conflict in the school system.

          Due to incompetence, some school head deny their teachers some staff professional growth programmes like in-service training, workshops and seminars. They erroneously see these as unnecessary waste of time and financial resources of the institution. Some school heads do not work in harmony with their assistants. These bring in conflicts into the system.

          Poor Attitude to Work: Some staff exhibit gross irresponsibility in their behavior. They are habitual late comers to classes and other school activities or even constantly absent themselves from school (Onwurah in Mgbodile, 2004). They are lousy and often abandon the duties assigned to them. In the school system, there is always an unofficial divide between some teachers who are lazy and those one who are more serious to their duties. While the workaholics come to school very early, others bruise in the school any time they like. This attitude breeds conflict because at the end, salaries and allowances are paid to every one without difference.

Some teachers do not even teach and even if they teach, it is not well done. Some teaches even in haste because they have another private function or assignment to attend to. This brings conflict between such teachers and the students/pupils and the head teacher.

          The Issues of Generational Gap: Obi (2004) opined that the speed of change in all aspects of live has become more rapid, more conspicuous and very devastating such that most of the youths do not come from stable home. Youths of today are no more products of established norms, values and customs of the society as foreign culture has eroded our own culture. The culture of respecting elders has gone extinct in the youths of today. Any teacher who is denied greeting from his students grows angry with such student and so there is a potential for conflict. The tremendous changes in the Nigerian society today as a result of modernization, which Nigerians did not make adequate provision for cultural assimilation, is frictional with the people’s way of life. The tendency for conflict interaction here is incontrovertible.

          Anti-authority: Some teachers are deliberately anti-authority. Some of them are ingrates. They always complain and feel neglected and oppressed in the institution. Onwurah in Mgbodile (2004) stated that staff can form cliques and engage in acts of insubordinate toward the school administration. at times, defiance of authority could be shown in blunt refusal to take instructions or responsibilities or in form of unco-operative attitude. It may sometime degenerate into an open confrontation with constituted authority. This attitude is most common amongst staff who have served long in a particular school with considerable wealth of experiences. Such staff find it difficult to remain loyal to the school administration. They would always want things done their own way. Factions may arise as it often occurs when things done their own way. Factions may arise as it often occurs when certain influential staff disagree with the school head. Such influential teachers instigate students’ riots. Thus, staff gross rebellious attitude against the school authority can result to conflict of open confrontation and threat, making the institution a hot spot, and this makes friendship turn sour. 

          Prejudice/Reality Distortion: Prejudice in this context means baseless preference or choice amongst many. Reality distortion is rebranding a thing or situation what it is not.  Issues are better resolved or problem being solved when there is reliable and precise interpretation and definitions of the underlying causes. Conversely, there is persistence of any problem whenever there is distortion of the reality. This will bring conflict amongst the parties involved. Also baseless choice of interest brings about competition and domination as each person strives to achieve, acquire and measure up in qualities and attributes that made others to be chosen. Avalanche of deceit are likely to occur here as parties are out to undo each other. Trivialities are blown out of proportion to discredit colleagues. These create potentials for conflict.

          Conflict interaction is a frequent occurrence in workplace and it manifests in different ways and levels of school organization. Conflict manifestation in organization such as schools, according to Onwurah (2010) include: Intra-personal, Inter-personal, Inter-departmental, intra unit/departmental, inter-organizational and community related conflict.

          Intra-Personal: This deals with crisis arising within the individual’s personality and it is difficult to analyze. According to Onwurah (2010), it concerns how the individual takes in, processes and produces information. When the individual looses control of intra-personal processes, there is danger of intra-personal conflict interaction. This is a situation where an individual quarrels with himself due to anxiety. This anxiety could be as a result of disappointment, failure, sickness or bereavement. The emotional state of the individual is unstable, and he/she becomes aggressive and unhappy. For example, a student who got an abysmal score in a subject he/she ought to perform excellently will grow annoyed. Also a teacher who is disappointing by not receiving his/her salary and allowances at the appropriate time would grow annoyed and this may escalate to conflict. Intra-personal conflict is characterized by depression, aggression, cantankerousness, avoidance and shouting, excessive thinking and misdemeanor.

          Inter-Personal Conflict: This is mutual hostility between two people who have incompatible goals, needs and approaches in their relationship (Onwurah, 2010). Organizational workers are composed of individuals who vary in needs, needs dispositions, emotions, perception, cultural and religious backgrounds etc. These heterogeneous compositions have great potentials for conflict. Thus, conflict may arise between a teacher who wants to teach and a pupil who does a different thing other than listening. On religious ground, experience show that a teacher who used teachers welfare fund to purchase palm wine quarrels with another lady teacher who claimed that her faith was against it.

          Intra-Unit/Departmental Conflict: This involves members of a unit/department in an institution. It could be ignited by issues like work load, insubordination, behavioural inadequacies of people, inconsistencies in human behaviour, incompetencies in duties and uncivilized ways of approaching issues in the organization.

          Inter-Unit/Departmental Conflict: When organizational facilities and equipment are inadequate, there is competition for them. This competition may breed conflict. Thus, there may be conflict by two different units say library and laboratory units over the use of computer. Mathematics and Basic Science Departments may quarrel over the use of scarce instructional materials.

          Inter-Organisational Conflict: Two schools (organizations) may engage in conflict emanating from sports competition, school land boundary or what ever. This conflict interaction if not handled with creativity, sometimes escalates to crisis and sometimes litigation between the conflicting schools/organizations.

          Community-Related Conflict: This may arise between a school and the host community as a result of unmet expectations of the community, job placement of members of the community or land boundary encroachment. Education for citizenship in our society demands that the school should endeavour to produce individuals who are capable to live and contribute to the building of the society. If this expectation is not met by the school, the community may rise against the school. Some schools are given free hand by the host community to recruit part-time staff. If the school fails to recruit an appreciable number of the staff from the community, conflict ensues. School/community land boundary precipitates conflict between the school and the host community. Thus, a school which has not secured the survey plan of the school land from the Ministry of Land and Survey is always in conflict interaction with the host community over the actual land area that belongs to the school land. School and the host community should endeavour to resolve their differences amicably so as to avoid town and gown and establish synergy. The synergy between school and host community shall help produce rounded students who shall form the great citizens of our country. These great citizens possess great ideas. Creativity, and ingenuity to harness the available resources and transform the environment and people.

             Organisational communication is prone to conflict interactions. These interactions have both positive and negative consequences in the operations of the organization. Thus, Meyer (2004) opined that conflicts have the potential to deteriorate organizational functioning by inducing resignation, absenteeism, accidents and overtime.

          According to Putman and Boys (2006):

Unmanaged conflict has the potential to cause several negative consequences in workplaces, communities, and homes. Many times these costs are hidden, that is, they are not readily apparent. At the same time, these costs are very detrimental to individuals, groups, and organizations. A lot of these conflicts are very subtle within an organization, yet still have the power to negatively affect an orgnaisation’s bottom line. (P.551)

 

On the other hand, Nemeth, Personaz and Goncalo (2004) asserted that conflict is a source of innovation, creativity and development in organizations. Rahim (2002) opined that

Conflicts are necessarily bad. The progress we have made so far in our civilization is due to the conflict between nature and man. Conflict releases energy every level of human activity – energy that can produce positive, constructive results. Conflicts tend to have a motivational value, they drive or energize and individual to tackle a situation. to resolve a conflict, one might explore different avenues or alternatives of action which make him/her more knowledgeable. Conflicts also provide opportunities to test one’s abilities. While successful resolution of a conflict adds to one’s self-confidence, unsuccessful attempts make one more realistic and resourceful to seek better alternatives and thereby improve one’s skill. (P.227).

 

From the foregoing therefore, conflict interactions, as part and parcel of organizational communication have both positive and negative consequences on the life of an organization.

          Positive Consequences of Conflict: Nemeth et al (2004) outlined the positive or beneficial consequences of conflicts on organizations to include:

-      Motivating individuals to do better and to work harder. The talents and abilities of organizational members come to the forefront in a conflict situation. According to Bacal (2006), the functional view of organizational conflict sees conflict as a productive force, one that can stimulate members of the organizations increase their knowledge and skills and their contribution for organizational innovation and productivity. In human nature, creativity and adaptability are survival and resilience options in a conflict situation. These skills which are elicited by the presence of conflicts contribute to organizational success.

-      Satisfying certain psychological needs like dominance, aggression, esteem and ego, and thereby provide an opportunity for the constructive use and release of aggressive urges. Human beings do enjoy being placed above others as being superior. Conflict is often part of the processes of testing and assessing one-self, and as such may be highly enjoyable as one experiences the pleasure of the full and active use of one’s capacities (Deutch in Njoku, 2004).

-      Providing creative and innovative ideas. Think-ups are high amongst organizational members during conflict. Each member in the conflict environment looks for ways to survive in the conflict situation. This may land them into coming out with thoughtful ideas that will bring innovation and solutions to existing problems in the organization. Employer’s benefits of the present day are an outcome of the union versus management conflicts over the past years.

-      Adding variety to ones organizational life, otherwise work life would be dull and boring. Obi (2004) maintained that conflict prevents stagnation. There is muscle flexing and brain cracking by opposing parties in a conflict interaction and this often results in agility, and fast reasoning.

-      Facilitating an understanding of the problem, people and interrelationships between people. There is better co-ordination amongst individuals and departments in addition to strengthening intra-group relationships. Conflict allows organizational members to know their weaknesses, inadequacies and areas of competence. These will create room for subsequent cooperation. Thus, teachers who quarreled with one another must have identified areas where each teacher is lacking and therefore make provisions for adjustment for future friendship and reunion.

Negative Consequences of Conflicts: According to Putman (2006), the deleterious effects of conflict on an organisation’s bottom line is shockingly high. He outlined the detrimental consequences of conflicts in organizations to include:

Increased costs (time, money) devoted to dealing with the conflict: Song et al (2006) opined that in an organizational setting, conflict consumes up to 20 percent of employee’ time. Some conflicts take very long time to resolve. It means that workers’ time which should have been use for the achievement of organizational goal is wasted. Some organizational moneys are also used up in the resolution processes. At the end, the organization finds it difficult to pay her workers and make purchases o raw materials. Some conflicts consume the lesson period, and hours that teachers would have used in teaching pupils.

Wasted resources and energy decipated in dealing with the conflict: Is unfortunate that resources which could have been used to attain educational goals will be spent on resolving or managing series of conflicts. It is a common knowledge that there is always scarcity of resources in the school system, but in times of conflict, the little available will be used to see that any existing disagreement is settled. This leaves little or virtually no resources for the school. Also joules of energy is dissipated both in talking, waking, distributing invitation letters to the conflicting parties and organizing meeting for reconciliation etc.

Decreased productivity: Productivity in this context means commensurate output of an organization at any point in time. Thus, Educational Institution is supposed to produce individuals who are knowledgeable with developed potentials with which to live and build the society. This proposition is not realizable in an institution ravaged by conflicts. The organizational team work and spirit will metamorphose to organizational antagonism, hatred and resentment which are inimical to increased productivity.

Lowered Motivation: Motivation is an internal state or condition (sometimes described as a need, desire or want) that serves to activated or energize behaviour and give it direction. According to Oboegbulem and Onwurah (2010), performance in an organizational setting is a function of four variables namely: motivation, capacity, opportunity and environment. Among these variables, motivation poses the greatest challenge and requires to be more effectively handled to promote high level of performance. Conversely, a demotivated worker will shun his responsibilities and be in opposition to the realization of organisatioal goals. Presence of conflict is a demotivator in an organizational setting and therefore sets stage for organizational failure, and perhaps entropy.

Decreased Morale: The spirit of loyalty, discipline and hardworking amongst organisatioal members are at their low ebb when there is discordance, interference and irascibility. No worker can cooperate in an atmosphere of rancour, acrimony, hatred, discontent, and abhorrence. Teachers exhibit apathy and lukewarm attitude to their duties and responsibilities when the school is engulfed in conflict interaction. Equally pupils/students break school rules and regulations in times of disorderliness without crackdown for the infraction.

Poor decision making: Sound decisions are difficult to come by when there is chaos and disaffection. There is collapse of co-ordination and control in an organization during dispute. Thus, Obi (2004) observed that conflict hinders co-ordination which is a pre-requite to achievement of organizational goals. The popular style of participatory decision making or all inclusive consultation are no more applicable because the organizational members do not easily communicate and so incompatible.

Withdrawal and miscommunication or non-communication: The first sign of conflict between individuals is that people start to ignore each other (Alger, 1996). Greeting interaction is a precursor to togetherness and task accomplishment. Organizational members who have withdrawn communication from each other or who are in uncommunication do not have anything to pursue or achieve in the organization. Thus, teacher (especially female ones) who quarrel find it almost impossible to stay together in a staff meeting. Consequently, the inputs of such members are therefore denied the institution and where available, are antagonistic and confrontaltional.

Complaints and blaming: In conflict situation, avalanche of complaints flood the management table. Things of trivial nature are compounded and composed into structures to complain about. Any recorded failure in any adventure, be it sport or academics, will suffer a lot of blames and recrimination emphasizing incompetencies on the part of the handlers. These blames come from opposing parties in existing conflict situation. each party is out to undo the others at the detriment of organsational goals. In conflict situation, organization affair becomes individual affair. Thus, blames will be on a games master whose athletes failed to perform well in an inter-schools sports competition without considering other intervening variables.

Backstabbing and gossip: Backstabbing is the act of attacking someone from the back who is supposed to be a friend. It can be described as the act of betrayal. Gossip is giving details of other peoples’ actions and private lives which may not be correct or proper. Gossiping and backstabbing impede general progress and perseverance of the organization as friends in the organization have unjustly turned to foes.

Attitude of distrust and hostility: Obi (2004) asserted that conflict reduces reliance on person and evokes emotional behaviour. The low trust and suspicion associated with conflict cause individuals to reduce interaction with the opposition, conceal activities, restrict communication and take untenable positions. Reliability amongst organizational members becomes extinct. Truth to one is falsehood to the other. Each member become hostile and aggressive to the other. Thus, at this stage of school conflict, staff welfare meeting used to collapse as teachers see themselves as enemies.

Erosion to personal, work and community relationship: Conflicting individuals find it difficult to maintain inter-personal relationship or relate at work site or at community level. This is because enmity creates a sharp divide between individuals who are involved. Organizational members who have no inter-personal relationship can hardly organize themselves for the pursuit of the stated organizational goals. Several erosion of inter-personal relationship can create inter-community conflict.

Harm to others not directly involved in the conflict: Conflict has the tendency to affect individuals who are not directly involved in the conflict. Thus, in the primary school system, experiences have shown that parents do engage each other in clueless conflict interaction simply because their wards/children fought or quarreled at school. Such parents shall ever have conflicting opinions and opposing camps during Parents Association (PA) meetings. This brings antagonism which renders the progress of the institution dysfunctional.

Damaged emotional and psychological well-being of those involved in the conflict: The emotional and psychological states of organizational members affect productivity. When the emotional and psychological states of workers are unstable, there is tendency for workers to unnecessarily and aggressively react to issues and situations that are trivail. The presence of conflict agitates organizational members emotionally and psychologically certainly negatively. These bring down organizational productivity.

Dissatisfaction and stress: Oboegbulem (2004) asserted that stress can also be defined or explained in terms of its three closely related concept – anxiety, conflict and frustration. Stress is also a pressure condition causing hardship, tension, disquiet and resulting from problems around. Organizational members exhibit dissatisfaction in an environmental condition that scare, threaten, anger, bewilder or excite them. Thus, a teacher whose life is threatened can hardly be regular at school let alone keeping prompt attendance to lesson periods with pupils.

Harm to Health and Death: The climax of violent conflicts is that it earns the key players sever injuries and ill-health that may lead to death. This is common in profit-making organizations like companies and some troubled countries like Egypt, Libya, Syria, Yemen and Nigerian experience during the dreadful Biafra-Nigeria civil war. Real diehards do unleash terror and mayhem on their arch rivals who are impediments to their selfish ends. Some diabolical members may use devilish means to enchant their rivals so that they seldomly participate in the institution affairs. In non-profit making organizations like primary schools, the extent of elimination may not be reached rather what normally obtain are threats, fighting, war of words, backstabbing, gossips, wastage of resources thus making the school a hot spot. Severity of conflict in primary schools occasion pupils withdrawing from school; teachers walking off their duties and general wastage of available human and material resources. Thus, Stephen in Putman and Boys (2006) summarized that

Education is one of the most effective ways to break the cycle of poverty. But during times of conflict, education takes a backseat to fighting. In eight countries for which data were available, the IMF found that during conflict, per-person education spending fell by 4.3 percent each year. Schools are destroyed or children cannot risk the walk to school because of the violence. Missing out on primary school can affect income and health over time. Children not only miss out on school. Many of them suffer from hunger. In some cases, children must work long hours, in mines or other abhorrent conditions, to survive. And in the lawlessness and impunity created by conflict, kidnapping, child trafficking and sex crimes are all too common. For these generations, the consequences of conflict are long term. (P.548).

Theoretical Framework

Theories of Conflict

          This study examined two conflict management theories and how they relate to the management of primary school conflicts in Nsukka Education zone.

Khun and Poole’s model

          Khun and Poole (2000) were conflict management theories. They established a system of group conflict management which they split into two sub-models – distributive and integrative models of conflict management. According to Khun and Poole’s theory, distributive model is whereby the conflict is approached as a distribution of a fixed amount of positive outcomes or resources where one side will end up winning and the other loosing even if they do, win some concessions.

          The school, as an organization, is made up of teachers, pupils and other workers who are in continuous interaction. This interaction breeds conflict. For the school to forge ahead, these conflicts have to be addressed for workers cooperation, order, and unity. The school head is at the apex of the leadership arrangement and so gives orders, functions or assignments to teachers and pupils. Some teachers may perceive these orders as exploitative and draconian, thereby turning down such orders, and conflict is triggered off. In this situation, Khun and Poole suggest that in a conflict situation like this, the management (the school head) can effectively handle the matter by applying the distributive model of conflict management which implies approaching the conflict by spreading a fixed amount of positive outcomes where either the school head wins the case and the teacher loose or vice versa.

          Integrative model of conflict management, according to Khun and Poole, sees conflict as an opportunity to integrate the needs and concerns of both conflicting groups and make the best outcome possible. In a conflict situation between the teachers and pupils, the school head being the manager uses the opportunity to know and observe the potentials and needs of the conflicting parties. This will enable him to administer the appropriate conflict management model to control the situation. This model has an intense emphasis on compromise than the distributive model. Khun and Poole found that the integrative model resulted in consistently better task related outcomes than the distributive model.

          This theory by Khun and Poole is related to the study in the sense that as conflict is inevitable in the school system, the management is necessary and can be accomplished through the utilization of the distributive and for integrative models of conflict management principally by the school head. This will restore peace, order, harmony and trust for organizational efficiency and effectiveness, hence the study.

 

 

Dechurch and Marks’s Meta-Taxonomy lModel

          Dechurch and Marks (2001) examined the literature available in confict management at the time and established what they claimed was a ‘meta-taxonomy’ that encompasses all other models. They argued that all other styles have inherent in them into two dimension – Activeness i.e. the extent to which conflict behaviours make a responsive and direct impression rather than inert and indirect impression. And Agreeableness i.e. the extent to which conflict behaviours make a pleasant and relaxed impression rather than unpleasant and strainful impression. In other words, they view conflict behaviour as having both open and closed expressions and tendencies that require passionate approach. Irrespective of the disorganizing nature of conflicts in organizations, there is every tendency for agreement afterward when approached with the befitting conflict management styles.

          The primary school as an educational organization has a hierarchical leadership structure with the school head at the top. He/she is closely followed by the assistant head teachers in various departments and lastly the pupils. The school head, by virtue of his/her position pilots the affairs of the school so as to achieve educational goals. Thus conflict is inevitable between the school head and assistant school head; teachers themselves or pupils and teachers. Dechurch and Marks’s model of conflict management sees noticeability as being the characteristic future of conflict situation rather than a thing to hide or cover. Conflict in organization is observable as it disrupts the entire organizational cooperation and unit. They agreed that high activeness is characterized by openly discussing differences of opinion while fully going after own interest while high agreeableness is characterized by attempting to satisfy all parties involve. Dechurch and Marks agreed that ‘activeness’ did not have a significant effect on the effectiveness of conflict resolution but ‘agreeableness’ of the conflict management styles but both positive impact on conflict management.

          The theory by Dechurch and Marks is related to this study as they hold the view that conflict in organizations are noticeable and impactive. The management of the conflict situation can be achieved by the application of the activeness and agreeableness models for the restoration of peace, institutional understanding and group outcome, hence the study.

Review of Empirical Studies

          Six different but related studies carried out by different researchers were consulted by the researcher, thus:

          Okolo (2005) carried out by parents, teachers and members of the board of governors in Enugu state. The purpose of the study was to determine effective conflict resolution strategies in school organization. One research question and one null hypothesis were formulated to guide the study. The descriptive research design was use. Using disproportionate stratified random sampling procedure, five (5) schools were selected from each of the six hundred and eighty six (686) community based secondary schools from which five hundred and forty (540) respondents were drawn. The instrument used for the study was questionnaire presented on a 4-point likert type scale. The reliability of the instrument at 0.92 was determined using Cronbach Alpha. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research question while Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was use to test the null hypothesis. The cut-off point used for decision making was 2.55. The major finding of study was that involvement o law enforcement agency cannot be a strategy for effective resolution of conflict in school organization. The reviewed work did not identify the prevailing conflict management strategies use by school heads and teachers in primary schools in Nsukka Education zone which is the purpose of this study.

          The study conducted by Edewusi (2003) was on investigation into principals’ conflict management strategies in secondary schools in Rivers state. The purpose of the study is to identify the causes of conflicts, establish the type of conflict that is common in the secondary schools and conflict management strategies that are commonly adopted by principals. Six research questions and two null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The research design adopted was descriptive survey design. Using stratified random sampling procedures, fifty (50) subject were drawn from Obi/Afor and Port-Harcourt city local governments which is 5% of the entire population. The instrument use was a structured questionnaire. For data analysis, 2.5 mid points in the 4-point Likert type scale were used t-test was to test the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of signifance. Her findings showed that scarce resources, communication gap, overlap of teachers’ role, divergence in goals and work interdependence are causes of conflicts. Also, student-related conflicts are the most common in schools. Effective communication, availability of resources and involving teachers and students in school administration are strategies for preventing conflicts whereas dialogue, arbitration, silence, setting a goal are conflict management strategies. Yet, the study did not present the contemporary conflict management strategies in schools. The purpose of this study is to identify the modern conflict management strategies used in primary schools in Nsukka Education zone.s

          A study was carried out by Okolo (2002) on sources of role conflicts in school organization among voluntary agencies in Enugu state: A critical analysis. The purpose was to investigate the sources of role conflicts in community-based secondary schools. One research question and one null hypothesis were formulated to guide the study. The research design adopted was a survey design. The subjects constituted the community-based secondary schools, the board of governors and the parents-teachers association executives. Using a disproportionate stratified random sampling procedure, five hundred and forty (540) subjects were drawn. A structured questionnaire was used for data collection. Mean scores and standard deviation were used in answering the research questions whereas Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used in testing the null hypothesis. The finding revealed that lack of knowledge of role expectations amongst the voluntary agencies is one of the sources of conflicts. However the study did not identify the prevailing conflict management strategies used by school heads and teachers in primary schools in Nsukka Education zone which is the main purpose of this study.

          A study was conducted by Edikpa (1997) on conflict resolution strategies between principals and teachers in Onitsh Education zone. The purpose of the study was to find out factors that contribute to conflicts between principals and teachers and the strategies for resolving such conflict. Proportionate stratified random sampling was used to draw five hundred and thirty five (535) teachers and fifteen (15) principals from a total population of one thousand, five hundred and thirty eight (1,538) teachers and thirty (30) principals. The instrument for data collection was questionnaire which was presented on 4-point Likert type scale. Mean and standard deviation was use to answer the research questions. The findings revealed that teachers absence from school in pursuit of personal interests and principals not caring for teachers’ welfare are sources of conflict. Also, ensuring prompt payment of teacher’s salaries and benefits, promoting teachers as at and when due, orgnaising workshops on good human relations and co-operation, and involvement of the community through Parent-Teachers Associations are strategies for resolving conflicts in secondary schools. The researcher erroneously identified some measures for motivating teachers instead of the strategies for resolving conflicts. The present study is on the identification of the modern conflict management strategies use by school heads and teachers in primary schools in Nsukka Education zone.

          Enyi (2001) carried out a study on students’ perception of sources and management strategies for resolving student-related conflicts in Universities: A study of University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The purpose was to find out the major sources of student-related conflicts in the Universities and the existing management strategies for resolving such conflicts. Two research questions were formulated to guide the study. Descriptive survey research design was adopted. Using proportionate random sampling, four hundred and twenty (420) students were selected across fourteen fourteen (14) faculties in the university. A 20-item questionnaire was used to gather opinions of the subjects. Descriptive and inferential statistics involving the use of mean and z-test were used to analyse the data collected at 0.05 level of signifance. The findings revealed that doubtful management practices, inadequate learning environment, inadequate utilities, poor communication and religious intolerance were source of student-related conflicts. It was also discovered that conflicts are better resolved through non-violent means such as use of arbitrators/influential people, dialogue, guidance counselors and allowing conflicts to run their normal course. Also student-related conflicts cannot be resolved by expelling erring students and using security agents to check and suppress conflicts. This study still did not come out with the contemporary conflict management strategies used by school heads and teachers in the management of conflicts in primary schools in Nsukka Education zone which is the main purpose of this study.

          Eze (2008) carried out a study on conflict management by secondary school principals and teachers in Aba Education zone. The main purpose of the study was to investigate the role of principals and teachers in conflict management in secondary schools in Aba Education zone. The main purpose of the study was to investigate the role of principals and teachers in conflict management in secondary schools in Aba Education zone of Abia state. Four (4) research questions and three (3) null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The descriptive survey research was adopted. The subjects are composed of all the secondary school principals and teachers in Aba Education zone of Abia state. Using a disproportionate stratified random sampling procedure, a total of thirty two (32) principals and three hundred and sixty one (361) teachers out of one hundred and sixty (160) principals and two thousand, eight hundred and eleven (2811) teachers respectively were used for the study. A structured questionnaire was used for data collection. Mean scores and standard deviation were used in answering the research questions while t-test was used for testing the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The findings revealed that management of school conflict could be achieved by adopting participatory decision making in schools; providing democratic style of leadership the principals; serving punishment that is proportional to minor offence; encouraging teachers to take interest in student’s welfare. The study did not identify the modern management strategies use by school heads and teachers in primary schools in Nsukka Education  zone which is the purpose of this study.

Summary of Literature Review

          The review of literature revealed that conflict is a commonly occurring phenomenon in organizations especially educational institutions. It was established that discordance, abhorrence and insecurity lead to organizational malfunction whereas peace, order and companionship bring about harmony, progress and fulfillment in organization. There are four stages of conflict: where potential for conflict exists; latent conflict; open conflict and aftermath conflict. Signs of conflict between individuals and groups are also highlighted.

          Some modern conflict management strategies were identified and explained. They are: Integrating, Obliging, Dominating, Avoiding and Compromising. Others are: Consolidating, Suppressing, Shaking and Engaging. It was emphasized that for effective application of these strategies, they should be made concepts for organizational learning; made ethics of the organization and stakeholders should be in position to adjudicated and solve right problems.

          The causes of conflicts as well as the types of conflict in school system were also discussed. The theories as bases for interpreting school conflicts were also explained.

          Six related earlier studies were consulted by the researcher. However, these studies did not concern themselves with the task of identifying modern conflict management strategies used by school heads and teachers in primary schools in Nsukka Education zone hence the need to carry out research work in this area. The researcher therefore deemed it necessary to fill the gap by conducting a research study on the conflict management strategies used by school heads and teachers in managing school-community conflicts, pupils related conflicts, teacher related conflicts and pupil-teacher related conflict in primary schools in Nsukka Education zone.

 

 TO GET THE FULL PROJECT , PROCEED TO PAY:

#5000

TO ACCOUNT NO: 6171742627

BANK: FIDELITY

FOR BARGANININ OR FURTHER ENQUIRIES CALL OR WHASTAP +23407064532617