CLASSROOM OBSERVATION

CLASSROOM OBSERVATION

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

A Guide to the Effective Observation of Teaching and Learning Classroom Observation explores the pivotal role of lesson observation in the training, assessment and development of new and experienced teachers. Offering practical guidance and detailed insight on an aspect of training that is a source of anxiety for many teachers, this thought-provoking book offers a critical analysis of the place, role and nature of lesson observation in the lives of education professionals. Illustrated throughout with practical examples from a range of education settings, it considers observation as a means of assessing teaching and learning and also as a way of developing teachers’ skills and knowledge.

The purposes and uses of lesson observation  

The socio-political and historical context in which lesson observation has developed  

Practical guidance on a range of observation models and methods

v Teacher autonomy and professional identity

v Performance management, professional standards and accountability

v Peer observation, self-observation and critical reflection

Using video in lesson observation. Written for all student and practising teachers as well teacher educators and those engaged in educational research, Classroom Observation is an essential introduction to how we observe, why we observation is an essential introduction to how we observe, why we observe and how it can be best used to improve teaching and learning.

CHAPTER TWO

THE CONCEPT OF CLASSROOM OBSERVATION

The role of classroom observation in the training assessment and development of new and experienced teachers. It describes various perspectives of classroom observation and its use in different contexts. There are three sections of which the first contextualises the topic against the wider socio-political and educational backdrop in which observation is perceived as a key mechanism to teacher learning and assessment. Whist the second part focuses the use of observation as an assessment tool; the third section explores its use for professional development.

It provides a critically informed knowledge and awareness about classroom observation and its use as a tool for enhancing teaching and learning and professional development. It gives a practical guidance for the use of classroom observation as a tool for professional development, and explores different typologies of classroom observation in relation to its use as a means of accessing teaching and learning. The author uses empirical evidence from case studies to explore alternatives to conventional models of observation which provides an insight into the manner in which classroom observation might be harnessed as a tool for enhancing teacher awareness and understanding of pedagogic skills and knowledge.

Reflecting on its content has helped to change one’s perception of classroom observation as a tool for teachers’ development and monitoring effectiveness. It has provided an informed awareness of current practices and future possibilities for practitioners to understand how to make use of observation in their practice. As a practitioner guide, it draws on findings from empirical data and case studies in different contexts, and a range of theories to synthesize elements of policy, practice and content of observation which is a unique feature of the book.

THE VALUE OF OBSERVATION

Observation is an important part of learning how to teach. Much of what beginner teachers need to be aware of cannot be learned solely in the university class. Therefore classroom observation presents an opportunity to see real-life teachers in real-life teaching situations. In their reflections, many of our teacher friends mention their observations and how these observations influence the way they plan and teach. Teachers are forever reflecting and making decisions, and when they see someone else in action, in as much as they are seeing someone else, they are almost simultaneously seeing themselves. This means that observation is important at every stage of a teacher’s career. In this section we will discuss the importance and value of observation, not only for student teachers, but for all teachers.

CHAPTER THREE

IMPORTANT OF CLASSROOM OBSERVATION

Classroom observation describes the practice of sitting in on another teacher’s class to observe, learn and reflect. Various aspects of the class can be examined, such as routines, use of time, schedule, participation, teaching strategies, management strategies, learner interest, and much more. A teacher will naturally look for support on an issue that is difficult for him or her, but it is often a great method of being exposed to a new and different approach to teaching.

Observation is important at every stage of a teacher’s career. Professional development has for a very long time included what is known as demonstration lessons; a master teacher, who has perhaps prepared students with some new strategies, invites many local teachers into their classroom to observe, and following the lesson a question and answer period takes place. All of the teachers involved, regardless of whether they are master teachers or beginning teachers, have the opportunity to dialogue together and learn from one another. This is a more recent trend in North America; schools are now trying to create opportunities for teachers to observe other teachers in their subject area, either in their own school or in other schools.

What should observation for a beginner teacher include?

For a teacher at the beginning of their career, there are some general issues that the teacher would need to observe and identify.  The focus would be on general pedagogic knowledge, which includes issues such as classroom management, differentiation and instructional strategies.

However, with training and experience teachers would need to progress to focus on other issues, which can be categorized as Pedagogic Content Knowledge (PCK). In this case, the teachers would focus on the overlap between pedagogic knowledge and content knowledge and specifically with an interest in what takes place in an SL classroom.

For example, it would be difficult to imagine an SL classroom without pair work activities. In other classes and other subjects one might observe group work activities; however, due to the linguistic content, there would be significant differences between the interactive exercises. In other subjects group work or pair work might be optional; but in a language classroom they are absolutely necessary. Furthermore, beginner SL learners require much more structure in an activity than beginners in other courses, because the structure increases the likelihood of success.

Classroom observation can often help expose teachers to new methods of teaching that might not have occurred to them beforehand. It may be threatening to be subject to peer observation since teachers might feel territorial and defensive in their classroom and protective of their resources and ideas. However, when it is done in a considerate and respectful fashion, observation can be beneficial for both the observing teacher and the teacher being observed. Below are some benefits of observation in the classroom.

Benefits for the observer

v Observe new techniques, strategies, ideas and resources

v Gain insight into one's own strategies and techniques

v Observe student reactions from a different perspective

v Help create a professional learning community with the best interests of the students in mind

v Personal Professional Development and growth

Benefits for the observed

v  Chance to see class through someone else’ eyes

v  Chance to re-evaluate the classroom from a different perspective

v  Chance to receive input (suggestions, ideas, resources) from a colleague

v  Creation of a professional learning community with the best interests of the students in mind

v  Personal Professional Development and growth

Best practices involves the sharing of resources, techniques and strategies. Allowing another teacher into one’s classroom allows for sharing between both of them; it also allows for self-reflection by all involved. Teachers are responsible for their own growth and development, and observation is an excellent alternative to the traditional Professional Development seminars.

What might you be looking for during observation?

One of the main challenges for observation is knowing what to look for. Some teacher education programs offer checklists for observation but it is often difficult to find specific checklists for subject areas, such as second language teaching.

Some specific things that one can look for when observing include how the teacher structures an activity; what the actual instructions are and whether they are given in English or the target language; if the teacher use synonyms for those basic instructions, or uses the same words, and what were those words; does the teacher give some visual cues to accompany those instructions; are the instructions divided into three or four steps with a visual icon visible on the board. These observations can be made because you are observing a more experienced teacher of second languages, or a teacher who is far more aware of what it takes to structure a classroom for the success of second language learners.

Good Practice and the importance of training

Teachers need to be confident about being observed and observers need to feel secure in their skills of observation and feedback. Schools have to ensure that all teachers are involved in the development of their Observation Programme and have appropriate training to be able to benefit from it.

A school system which has a comprehensible framework, agreed descriptors and judgement criteria, working

protocols and expected outcomes clearly defined will be in a very strong position to influence teaching positively.

Any system needs to operate within an appropriate culture. A culture of shared learning, where it is normal (and expected) to be reflective, evaluative and challenging in a supportive manner has to exist. It is leadership which creates the culture and this, aligned to focused action, helps move schools towards the teaching goals and targets they have set themselves.

Schools now have to demonstrate that their observation of teaching leads to improvement and professional development.

LIMITATIONS OF CLASSROOM OBSERVATION AND NEW DIRECTIONS

Systematic classroom observation is a quantitative method of measuring classroom behaviors from direct observations that specifies both the events or behaviors that are to be observed and how they are to be recorded. Generally, the data that is collected from this procedure focuses on the frequency with which specific behaviors or types of behavior occurred in the classroom and measures their duration. There are several elements that are common to most observational systems.

v  a purpose for the observation

v  operational definitions of all the observed behaviors

v  training procedures for observers

v  a specific observational focus

v  a setting

v  a unit of time

v  an observation schedule

v  a method to record the data

v  a method to process and analyze data (Stallings and Mohlman, pp. 469–471)

Prior to the use of systematic observational methods, research on effective teaching typically consisted of subjective data based on personal and anecdotal accounts of effective teaching. In order to develop a scientific basis for teaching, researchers began to use the more objective and reliable measures of systematic classroom observation. In the last quarter of the twentieth century, several hundred different observational systems have been developed and used in classrooms. There have similarly been hundreds of studies that have used classroom observation systems since the 1970s.

Although there are several types of observational procedures or techniques that have been used to examine effective teaching (e.g., charts, rating scales, checklists, and narrative descriptions), the most widely used procedure or research method has been systematic classroom observation based on interactive coding systems. These interactive coding systems allow the observer to record nearly everything that students and teachers do during a given time interval. These interaction systems are very objective and typically do not require the observer to make any high inferences or judgments about the behaviors they observe in the classroom. In other words, these low-inference observational systems provide specific and easy identifiable behaviors that observers can easily code. Some of the more commonly used observation instruments are the Brophy-Good Dyadic Interaction System, Stallings Observation System, and the Classroom Observation Schedule. They all have been widely used in research studies and in teacher development projects designed to improve classroom instruction.

Some of the major strengths of using classroom observation allow educators to do the following:

(1) Permit researchers to study the processes of education in naturalistic settings;

(2) Provide more detailed and precise evidence than other data sources; and (3) Stimulate change and verify that the change occurred. The descriptions of instructional events that are provided by this method have also been found to lead to improved understanding and better models for improving teaching.

A final strength of this research method is that the findings from these observational studies have provided a coherent, well-substantiated knowledge base about effective instruction. Many of the reviews and summaries of the classroom observation research, such as that of Herb Walberg (1991, 1995), have consistently found that a number of classroom behaviors significantly relate to students' academic achievement. Several aspects of classroom instruction such as conducting daily reviews, presenting new material, conducting guided practice, providing feedback and correctives, conducting independent practice, and conducting weekly and monthly reviews have been found to be significantly related to students' academic achievement. In other words, research using systematic classroom observation has provided us with a substantial knowledge base that has helped us understand effective teaching.

CHAPTER FOUR

PURPOSES OF CLASSROOM OBSERVATION

Classroom observation has many valid and important educational purposes. This section summarizes three important purposes or areas where systematic classroom observation has been widely used:

(1) Description of instructional practices;

(2) Investigation of instructional inequities for different groups of students;

(3) Improvement of teachers' classroom instruction based on feedback from individual classroom or school profiles.

Improvement of teaching practices. Research using observational methods has yielded important information that has practical implications for the improvement of teaching practices. One of the traditional problems hindering teachers' classroom instruction has been the lack of valid and accurate information that teachers could use in order to facilitate their professional growth. Many teachers, even experienced ones, are not always aware of the nature of their interactions with individual students. Consequently, one of the most important purposes of systematic classroom observation is to improve teachers' classroom instruction. Feedback from individual classroom profiles derived from systematic observations has been found to help teachers understand their own strengths and weaknesses, and have consequently enabled them to significantly improve their instruction. Through feedback, teachers can become aware of how their classroom functions and thus bring about changes they desire. This process typically involves having trained observers systematically observe teachers and their students in their classrooms and later providing teachers with information about their instruction in clinical sessions. This approach is based on the assumption that teachers value accurate information that they can use to improve their instruction.

There is growing evidence that feedback from systematic observations can be used to improve teaching. Several studies, such as that of Jane Stallings, have found that teachers could positively change their attitude and behaviors toward pupils after receiving feedback from classroom observations. Good and Brophy's 1974 "treatment study" exemplifies this type of research. In that study, teachers were given feedback based on forty hours of classroom observation. As a result of this "one-shot" interview where feedback was given, teachers' interaction patterns changed, and their attitudes toward individual students changed, too. Stallings, Howard Ebmeier, Good, and Good and Douglas Grouws have utilized similar strategies in other projects. In those studies, teachers were presented with individual feedback regarding their classroom instruction and then were found to change their behavior in desirable ways. All these studies have found that teachers can improve their classroom instruction given appropriate feedback and suggestions for improvement.

The overall findings from these studies suggest that feedback from classroom observations is a viable and effective mechanism for providing teachers with the information they need about their classroom behavior. This feedback is intended to create an "imbalance" in teachers' perceptions of their own behaviors. This imbalance exists whenever teachers find out that their attitudes or perceptions of their teaching differ from that of trained observers. Teachers in such a state of "imbalance" are motivated to do something about their behavior in order to restore themselves to a balanced condition. A similar notion is that self-awareness increases teachers' control of their actions and the possibility that they will modify them. In 1995 Waxman, Huang, and Padrón provided schoolwide feedback to middle school teachers that compared their school profile on classroom instructional behaviors to an overall districtwide average of these same behaviors. Feedback from these profiles was used to stimulate dialogue and discussion about instructional strengths and weaknesses in the school. The profiles also helped initiate discussion about specific instructional areas that needed to be improved in the school. It should be pointed out that these profiles provided some guidelines for practice, and they were not attempts to tell teachers what to do. These profiles provide teachers with concepts and criteria that they can use to reflect about their own teaching. The feedback session was not viewed as one where research findings should be applied into specific rules or guidelines for teachers to follow. Rather, the observational feedback was intended to be used as a guide for teachers with which they and their colleagues could reflect about their practices on their own and decide what action to take. Professional services and university courses are some of the possibilities that teachers could choose if they wanted to continue to collaborate with the researchers in order to help them improve their instruction. In summary, the use of feedback from classroom observations appears to be a potent strategy that can improve instructional behaviors in specific classrooms and schools.

Limitations of Classroom Observation

There have also been several criticisms and cautions related to the use of structured observation techniques, according to Sara Delamont and David Hamilton. The criticisms and limitations of using structured observation techniques are categorized into three subsections:

(1) Theoretical and epistemological criticisms;

(2) Methodological concerns; and

(3) Pragmatic concerns. This section also includes a brief discussion of the implications of classroom observation and some new directions.

Theoretical and epistemological criticisms. Although observational research has produced a substantial body of important findings that can lead to improved teaching practices, there is still a lack of consensus or lack of confidence regarding the research. There have been many theoretical and epistemological criticisms of classroom observational, process-product research such as that of Maurice Galton in 1988. Several critics, for example, have argued that this research is devoid of theory and consequently cannot explain why some instructional behaviors impact student outcomes. There are also related concerns about why some variables are selected to be observed at the exclusion of other variables. Because there is no model or theory behind the research, the critics argue that there is no justification for the selection of variables or meaningfulness associated with the interpretation of results. They further argue that the selection of events or behaviors may not be clear to anyone except the observer or instrument developer. In other words, classroom observation research has not dealt with the theoretical assumptions of why a particular style of teaching or set of instructional variables influences student learning.

Tom Popkewitz, Robert Tabachnick, and Kenneth Zeichner (1979) state that this research approach has a behaviorist orientation that maintains "it is possible to identify, control, and manipulate specific outcomes of teaching by altering selected aspects of a teacher's overt behavior" (p. 52). They further contend that teaching is viewed, "as the sum of discrete behaviors and a change in one or several of these behaviors is assumed to affect the quality of teaching as a whole" (p. 52). Their most strenuous argument, however, concerns the notion that these teaching behaviors "are often viewed independent of the curricular context with which the techniques are associated" (p. 52). They are concerned that observers generally focus on isolated behaviors, without concern for the preceding and subsequent behaviors that they feel provide the context and meaning of the behavior. Another concern is that most observational systems are generally limited–they can be used only to observe covert behavior that can be quantitatively measured. Furthermore, these observational systems make it difficult to record complex instructional behaviors.

Methodological concerns. Most observational techniques have limitations. Some of these concerns or limitations are related to methodological issues that can interfere with the drawing of valid conclusions. One of the primary methodological concerns or source of invalidity that needs to be addressed regarding the use of systematic observational techniques relates to the obtrusiveness of the technique. Observer effects may occur because teachers and students are aware that their behaviors are being observed. The presence of an observer may change teacher or student behaviors, perhaps resulting in reactive effects. Teacher anxiety or teachers performing less well than usual can interfere with the drawing of valid inferences about what normally occurs in the classroom. On the other hand, there is also some evidence that indicates that teachers' instruction may be slightly better than usual when they are being observed. Although some researchers like Donald Medley, Homer Coker, and Robert Soar maintain that observer effects are not serious concerns, the possibility that this threatens the validity and reliability of data collected exists.

There are a number of methodological concerns that similarly need to be addressed. The reliability and validity of observational systems is a primary concern. Although many systems report inter-rater agreement or observer accuracy, they do not specify the reliability as it pertains to stability of teacher behavior or on the internal consistency of the scale. Validity is another important concern that needs to be addressed. Construct validity, for example, which focuses on the "theoretical integrity" of the behaviors, is particularly important. Criterion-related validity, or the extent to which the observational measures relate to a criterion measure, is rarely reported, and concurrent validity or the extent to which a particular instrument is related to other instruments is generally missing too.

There are other methodological concerns that are related to the actual amount of time that is necessary to obtain a valid observation period, as well as the appropriate number of observations that are required in order to obtain reliable and valid measures of instruction. Similarly, there are a number of methodological concerns related to the analyses of data. Most of these concerns address the issue of what the appropriate level of analysis (e.g., student, the class, or students within class) should be used when analyzing the observation data. Students are nested within classrooms, while classrooms are nested within schools. Prior teacher effectiveness research has often aggregated data to classroom-level analyses that may underestimate the importance of processes within classes because all the within-class variation is lost. Recent analytic developments, such as hierarchical linear modeling (HLM), allow researchers to disentangle these nested effects and investigate hypotheses about the effects of within-and between-school or class factors on classroom instruction or students' perceptions of their learning environments. Advanced statistical models, such as HLM, allow researchers to identify and separate individual effects from group effects, after statistically controlling for other explanatory variables. Such multilevel models can estimate how group-level variables (e.g., characteristics of the classroom or school) influence the way in which individual-level variables (e.g., students' classroom behavior) affect students' achievement.
Another concern related to prior classroom observation research is that it has typically been generic (i.e., generalizing across grade levels and content areas), rather than focusing on a given grade level and/or subject area. Similarly, the content of the lesson is often neglected as has the quality of the interaction that is being recorded.

Pragmatic concerns. A final category of limitations related to classroom observation are pragmatic concerns that focus on the practicality of conducting observational research. One of the primary pragmatic concerns of observation research is that it is costly to do because it requires extensive training and time. Some training programs for observers, for example, require as much as seven full days of intensive training before the observations are conducted in classrooms. Gaining access to schools and classrooms to conduct observations is another serious concern. Many school districts are reluctant to allow observation of teachers in their schools because they feel it would be too disruptive to the learning environment. Teachers have also been known to dramatically alter their instruction when observers are present in the classroom.

Another pragmatic concern relates to the misuse of classroom observation data. Classroom observations can be very useful as a formative evaluation procedure, but should not be used to provide summative decisions, such as those regarding a teacher's dismissal or rehiring. Similarly, classroom observations should not be tied to summative decisions like salary increases. Unfortunately, several school districts and state departments of education have misused observational research and translated findings into specific rules or standards that they have used in developing evaluation instruments. These misuses are more "accidents" of the research, however, rather than problems associated with the "essence" of the research.

The previously mentioned criticisms and limitations, however, do not necessarily detract from the value and utility of the observational method. Many of these criticisms are incidental aspects of some observational research. Nate Gage and Margaret Needels and others, for example, have refuted many of these criticisms and have provided several examples of how observation research has contributed to instructional theories. Medley has also argued that the previous methodological limitations of observational research were greatly reduced in the 1990s. He points out, for example, the impact that the laptop computer will have on classroom observation research. In addition to replacing traditional clipboards and stopwatches, the laptop computer will aid the precision and accuracy of researchers in recording events, as well as provide a detailed account of contextual items that occur during the observation.

New Directions

It is important to point out again that no one data source or methodology will sufficiently answer all critical educational questions. Multiple measures or indicators of instruction are needed to help capture a more comprehensive picture of what goes on in classrooms. Some of the new directions for classroom observation include the following:

 (1) Combining both qualitative and quantitative methods in observation systems;

(2) Developing observation instruments that are based on "standards" of pedagogy;

 (3) Using student-centered observation instruments that allow for comparisons between groups of students within the class; and

(4) using instruments that assess authentic, interactive instructional practices that have been found to relate to student gains on higher-level cognitive outcomes.

REFERENCES
Brophy, Jere e., and Good, Tom L. 1974. Teacher–Student Relationships: Causes and Consequences. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Delamont, Sara, And Hamilton, David. 1986. "Revisiting Classroom       Research: A Cautionary Tale." In Controversies in Classroom Research,    ed. Martyn Hammersley. Philadelphia: Open University Press.

Ebmeier, Hoard, And Good, Tom L. 1979. "The Effects of Instructing     Teachers about Good Teaching on the Mathematics Achievement of     Fourth-Grade Students." American Educational Research Journal           16:1–16.

Evertson, Carolun, And Green, Judith. 1986. "Observation as Inquiry and        Method." In Handbook of Research on Teaching, 3rd edition, ed. Merlin   C. Wittrock. New York: Macmillan.

Fennema, Elizabeth, And Peterson, Penelope L. 1987. "Effective Teaching for   Girls and Boys: The Same or Different?" In Talks to Teachers, ed.

Galton, Maurice. 1988. "Structured Observation Techniques." In Educational   Research, Methodology and Measurement: An International Handbook,          ed. John P. Keeves. Oxford: Pergamon.